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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/essentialsofenglOOrinerich 


Essentials  of  English 


A  Textbook  for  Schools 


BY    GEORGE    W.    RINE 


Pacific  Press  Publishing  Company 

Mountain  View,  California 
Portland,  Oregon  Regina,  Sask.,  Canada  Kansas  City,  Missouri 


Entered  According  to  Act  of  Congress,   in  the  Year  1908,   by  the 

PACIFIC   PRESS   PUBLISHING    COMPANY 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  planned  to  afford  the  learner  a 
practice  review  of  the  essentials  of  English  gram- 
mar, and  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  formal  and 
practical  rhetoric.  The  book  is,  in  brief,  a  manual 
of  the  working  principles  of  English  composition. 
It  is  designed  to  serve  as  a  natural  transition  from 
the  study  of  grammar  to  that  of  rhetoric  proper. 
It  is,  for  this  reason,  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
higher  classes  in  grammar  schools  and  the  lower 
classes  in  high  schools. 

Part  One  is  replete  with  matter  suited  to  the  task 
of  training  the  pupil  to  syntactical  accuracy.  The 
materials  for  study  and  practice  have  been  selected 
and  arranged  with  a  constant  view  to  the  vital  peda- 
gogical principal — learning  by  doing. 

The  pupil  should  be  taught  from  the  first  to  punc- 
tuate correctly  what  he  writes.  No  writing  is  com- 
plete until  it  is  punctuated.  To  punctuate  properly 
is  as  important  as  to  spell  correctly.  To  master  the 
art  of  punctuating  is  to  master  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  art  of  clearness  in  written  composition. 
For  this  reason  the  subject  is  treated  with  unusual 
fullness  in  Part  Two. 

Part  Three  sets  forth  the  principles  governing 
the  art  of  letter-writing.  But  this  art,  like  all  others, 
can  not  be  mastered  without  much  practice.  The 
discussion  of  principles  is,  therefore,  followed  by  an 
abundance  of  suggestive  exercises. 
•  Part  Four  is  in  itself  a  brief  manual  of  composi- 
tion. It  discusses  words,  sentences,  and  paragraphs. 
Figurative  language  is  explained  and  illustrated 
with  considerable  fullness.  The  principles  of  clear- 
ness, force,  unity,  variety,  and  transition  are  set 


293627 


iv  PREFACE 

forth  and  illustrated.  A  marked  feature  of  Part 
Four  is  the  unusual  variety  and  fullness  of  prac- 
tical exercises  designed  to  assist  the  learner  in  the 
extremely  important  work  of  building  a  vocabulary. 
Other  means  of  attaining  the  same  end  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  teacher. 

Part  Five  treats  of  synonyms,  homonyms,  idioms, 
and  phrases,  which  are  in  frequent  misuse.  Many 
actual  and  some  apparent  synonyms  are  discrim- 
inated. Common  improprieties  of  diction  are  pointed 
out  and  their  corrections  indicated.  A  somewhat 
long  list  of  exercises  is  added,  which  will  exact  of 
the  learner  original  investigation  and  vigorous,  in- 
dependent thinking. 

Some  teachers  may  not  like  the  sequence  govern- 
ing the  succession  of  the  several  parts  of  this  work. 
Teachers  must  not  get  the  impression,  however,  that 
it  is  necessary  to  study  the  parts  consecutively. 
Each  part  is  measurably  complete  in  itself,  and,  to 
a  considerable  degree,  independent  of  the  other  parts. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  study  of  Part  One  be 
finished  before  lessons  are  assigned  in  Part  Two. 
It  is  evident  that  the  art  of  punctuation  should  be 
well  mastered  before  the  study  of  the  "Principles 
of  Effective  Composition"  is  begun.  The  work 
prescribed  in  Part  Five  should,  in  my  judgment,  be 
distributed  over  the  entire  time  required  to  com- 
plete the  study  of  the  book. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  in  the  arduous 
process  of  attaining  skill  in  speaking  and  writing 
English,  nothing  else  succeeds  like  speaking  and 
writing.    "We  learn  by  doing." 

George  W.  Rine. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Part  One 

Applied   Grammar    7 

Part  Two 

Punctuation    90 

Part  Three 

Letter- Writing    141 

Part  Four 

Principles  of  Effective  Composition 163 

Part  Five 

Accuracy  in  the  Use  of  Words    246 


PART  ONE 


Applied   Grammar 

Faultless  grammar  is  the  first  requisite  of  good 
English.  It  is  a  degree  of  perfection  of  speech 
to  which  all  can  attain.  It  is,  however,  only  by 
extended  observation  and  practice  that  grammatical 
accuracy  can  be  crystallized  into  habit — a  habit 
indispensable  to  those  who  appeal  to  their  fellows 
through  voice  or  pen. 

The  only  phase  of  grammar  with  which  we  are 
here  concerned  is  the  application  of  its  laws.  The 
standard  of  grammatical  correctness  is  the  usage 
of  scholarly  writers  and  speakers  of  the  present  time. 
Like  all  other  living  tongues,  the  English  language 
is  a  growing  language,  and  is,  therefore,  subject  to 
change  from  time  to  time.  What  was  faultless  Eng- 
lish in  the  time  of  Shakespeare,  contains  not  a  few 
expressions  that  are  now  solecisms. 

Definition. — A  Solecism  is  a  construction  at  va- 
riance with  the  laws  of  grammar. 

Definition. — Syntax  is  the  art  of  correctly  ap- 
plying the  laws  of  grammar  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

Hence  solecisms,  taken  collectively,  are  usually 
called  False  Syntax.  The  few  solecisms  found  in 
the  King  James  Version  of  the  Bible  were  not  sole- 
cisms at  the  time  that  version  was  made  (1611). 

(7) 


8'''-     ''•'  !  ?Sv  ES3,eK?M-US  OF  ENGLISH 

The  fundamental  principles  of  grammar,  estab- 
lished by  good  usage,  will  now  be  stated  and  illus- 
trated. 

HOW  TO  FORM  THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE  OF  NOUNS 

Rule. — The  possessive  of  nearly  all  singular 
nouns,  and  of  all  plural  nouns  not  ending  in  s, 
is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s)  to 
the  nominative  form.  The  possessive  of  all  plural 
nouns  that  end  in  s  is  formed  by  adding  an  apos- 
trophe alone. 

a.  The  possessive  case  of  a  few  proper  nouns,  for 
examples,  Jesus,  Moses,  Xerxes,  Achilles,  Hercules, 
Demosthenes,  etc.,  and  of  the  abstract  nouns  good- 
ness and  conscience,  is  formed  by  adding  an  apos- 
trophe alone;  as,  Jesus'  disciples;  Xerxes'  army; 
Achilles'  wrath;  for  conscience'  sake;  for  goodness 
sake, 

b.  Words  having  the  same  form  in  the  singular 
and  the  plural  number  form  the  plural  possessive  by 
adding  an  s  and  an  apostrophe  (s')  ;  as,  sheeps'  eyes; 
deers'  horns.  As  a  rule,  proper  nouns  of  the  sin- 
gular number,  whether  they  end  in  s  or  not,  take 
the  possessive  form  regularly ;  that  is,  by  the  adding 
of  the  apostrophe  and  s;  as,  Dr.  Brooks's  sermons ; 
Burns' s  poems;  Charles's  bicycle.  The  adding  or 
the  omitting  of  the  s  in  such  cases  is  chiefly  a  matter 
of  taste.  The  practice  of  newspaper  publishers 
varies  greatly.    Whenever  there  is  doubt,  it  is  safe 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  9 

to  follow  the  regular  rule;  as,  Perkins's  "Rules  of 
the  Game." 

c.  The  possessive  case  of  compounds  and  expres- 
sions used  as  compound  nouns  is  formed  by  adding 
the  sign  of  the  possessive  to  the  last  part  of  the 
compound ;  as,  The  attorney -general's  office  is  on  the 
third  floor.  His  two  brothers-in-law's  estates  were 
sold.  The  Emperor  of  Germany's  youngest  son  has 
no  taste  for  military  life. 

d.  The  possessive  case  of  two  or  more  nouns 
denoting  joint  possession  is  formed  by  adding  the 
sign  of  the  possessive  to  the  last  noun  alone;  as, 
Hugh,  Paul,  and  Alice's  uncle  gave  them  a  Shetland 
pony.  We  used  Herrick  and  Damon's  "Composition 
and  Rhetoric." 

e.  The  possessive  case  of  two  or  more  nouns  used 
co-ordinately,  but  not  denoting  joint  possession,  is 
formed  by  adding  the  possessive  sign  to  each  noun ; 
as,  There  are  more  women's  and  children's  shoes 
made  in  Lynn  than  in  Boston.  He  would  listen  to 
neither  his  father's  nor  his  teacher's  advice. 

f.  There  are  two  recognized  ways  of  expressing 
the  possessive  case  of  compound  forms  ending  in 
else;  as,  Some  one's  else  book,  or,  Some  one  else's 
book.  To-day  most  writers  of  repute  prefer  the 
latter,  or  regular,  form. 

g.  Sometimes  possession  is  indicated  by  the  prepo- 
sition of  used  with,  or  without,  the  apostrophe  and  s; 
as,  Those  were  the  words  of  Jesus.  He  is  a  servant 
of  my  uncle's.    This  is  a  story  of  my  father's.    The 


10  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

names  of  inanimate  objects  usually  express  pos- 
session by  means  of  the  o /-phrase  alone;  as,  The 
hardness  of  the  rock;  not,  The  rock's  hardness.  Yet 
such  short  phrases  as  "a  week's  wages,"  "at  death's 
door,"  "a  day's  journey,"  "two  years'  interest,"  are 
supported  by  the  best  usage. 

The  student  must  not  fail  to  note  that  a  sen- 
tence in  which  an  o/-phrase  is  used  alone  to  denote 
possession,  has  a  meaning  different  from  what  it  has 
when  the  apostrophe  and  s  are  used  in  addition  to 
the  o/-phrase.  Thus:  "This  is  a  story  of  my 
father's"  means  a  story  told  by  my  father.  "This  is 
a  story  of  my  father,"  means  a  story  about  my 
father. 

EXERCISE  I 

Embody  in  sentences  the  possessive  form  of  each 
of  the  following  words  or  groups  of  words: 

Pericles  brothers-in-law 

teachers  Chief  Justice  Fuller 

John  Adams  eagles 

women  angels 

six  months  waif 

Lord  Essex  monkey 

oxen  geese 

pony  Prince  of  Wales 

Robert  Burns  one  day 

Knights  Templars  King  of  Spain 

four  years  princes 

witness  ladies 

mice  Senator  Perkins 

Edward  the  Seventh        chief 

fox  postmaster-general 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  11 

EXERCISE  II 

Distinguish  as  to  meaning  between  the  members 
of  each  of  the  following  pairs: 

1.  My    brother's    picture.      The    picture    of    my 
brother. 

2.  The  reception  of  Dewey  in  New  York.    Dewey's 
reception  in  New  York. 

3.  Gertrude  and  Laura's  doves.     Gertrude's  and 
Laura's  doves. 

4.  Care  of  a  sister.    A  sister's  care. 

5.  The  President's  reception.     The  reception  of 
the  President. 

6.  This  is  a  portrait  of  her.     This  is  a  portrait 
of  her's. 

7.  A  story  of  Dr.  Briggs.    A  story  of  Dr.  Briggs's. 

8.  Children's  love.     The  love  of  children. 

EXERCISE  III 

Write  the  following  correctly.     Give  the  reason 
for  each  correction: 

1.  Our  pupils  use  Ridpath,  Eggleston,  and  Chan- 
ning's  United  States  History. 

2.  Do  you  prefer  Morton  or  Frye's  geography? 

3.  A  goose  and  a  duck's  foot  are  shaped  nearly 
alike. 

4.  Father    likes    Tennyson    better    than   Words- 
worth's poetry. 

5.  I  have  no  time  to  read  Stewart  or  Hamilton's 
philosophy. 


12  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

6.  He  plowed  up  a  mouses'  nest. 

7.  Grant  and  Lee's  soldiers  were  disbanded  at  the 
same  time. 

SPECIAL  NUMBER  FORMS  OF  NOUNS 

Rule. — Most  English  nouns  are  made  plural  by 
adding  s  to  the  singular. 

The  following  are  important  variations  from  this 
rule: 

1.  Nouns  Ending  in  "o." — If  the  final  o  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed  regularly,  that 
is,  by  adding  s;  as,  portfolio,  portfolios.  If  the  final 
o  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the  plural  is  formed, 
as  a  rule,  by  adding  es;  as,  hero,  heroes. 

The  following  words,  however,  are  exceptions,  and 
form  the  plural  by  adding  s  alone: 


banjo 

bravo 

piano 

stiletto 

canto 

lasso 

grotto 

tyro 

halo 

memento 

proviso 

torso 

junto 

octavo 

quarto 

casino 

chromo 

dynamo 

solo 

2.  Nouns  Ending  in  "y." — If  the  final  y  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel,  the  plural  is  formed  regularly ;  as, 
valley,  valleys;  chimney,  chimneys. 

If  the  final  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  the  y 
is  changed  to  i  and  es  is  added  to  form  the  plural; 
as,  cherry,  cherries;  mercy,  mercies. 

3.  Nouns  Ending  in  "f." — The  following  nouns 
ending  in  the  sound  of  /  form  the  plural  by  chang- 
ing /  or  fe  to  v  and  adding  es: 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  13 


beef        half 

life          sheaf      wife 

calf         knife 

loaf         shelf       wolf 

elf          leaf 

self         thief       wharf  (or  wharfs) 

A  few  nouns 

ending  in  /  or  fe  follow  the  regular 

rule,  and  add  s, 

,    The  following  are  examples : 

belief 

grief 

reproof 

brief 

gulf 

roof 

chief 

handkerchief 

safe 

dwarf 

hoof 

scarf 

fief 

proof 

strife 

fife 

reef 

waif 

4.  Plural  of  Compound  Nouns. — The  plural  of 
most  compound  nouns  is  formed  by  adding  the 
proper  sign  of  the  plural  to  the  essential  part  of 
the  word;  that  is,  the  part  described  by  the  rest  of 
the  compound;  as,  goose-quill,  goose-quills;  sister- 
in-law,  sisters-in-law. 

The  plural  of  a  few  compound  nouns  is  formed 
by  making  both  parts  plural ;  as,  man-servant,  men- 
servants;  ignis-fatuus,  ignes-fatuL  Others  of  this 
class  are,  woman-servant,  woman-singer,  man- 
singer,  and,  usually,  Knight  Templar. 

5.  Plural  of  Proper  Nouns. — The  plural  of 
proper  nouns  is  expressed  by  adding  s  to  the  singu- 
lar, or  es  when  s  will  not  coalesce  in  sound;  as,  the 
first  two  Napoleons;  the  two  Marys  of  English  his- 
tory; the  Joneses;  the  two  Johns  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

Most  proper  nouns  when  preceded  by  titles  may 
be  made  plural  in  either  of  two  ways;  the  Misses 


14 


ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 


Blair,  or  the  Miss  Blair s;  the  Messrs.  Clark,  or  the 
Mr.  Clarks;  the  Colonels  Brown,  or  the  Colonel 
Browns;  the  Drs.  Hall,  or  the  Dr.  Halls.  The  latter 
of  these  forms  is  always  used  when  the  title  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  numeral;  as,  The  two  Mr.  Wellers;  the 
three  Miss  Bartletts.  When  the  title  is  Mrs.,  the 
proper  sign  of  the  plural  is  added  to  the  last  part 
only;  as,  the  Mrs.  Parkers. 

6.  Letters,  Figures,  and  other  symbolic  charac- 
ters are  made  plural  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and 
s  ('s)  ;  as,  There  are  more  e's  than  i's  in  this  word. 
There  are  three  b's  in  this  number. 

7.  Nouns  Always  Treated  as  Plurals. — The 
following  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  number  only : 


aborigines 

clothes 

pincers 

alms 

credentials 

premises  (property) 

amends 

dregs 

riches 

annals 

eaves 

scissors 

antipodes 

embers 

snuffers 

archives 

goods  (mdse.) 

statistics 

ashes 

headquarters 

tongs 

assets 

hose 

thanks 

belles-lettres 

hysterics 

tidings 

billiards 

nuptials 

trousers 

bitters 

oats 

vespers 

breeches 

obsequies 

victuals 

cattle 

paraphernalia 

wages 

Note. — The   singular  wage  is  sometimes  used  in  the  literature 
of  economics.     News  is  always  singular. 

8.  Names  of  Sciences  or  Arts  Ending  in  "ic"  or 
"ics." — All  such  nouns,  except  politics,  are  always 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR 


15 


singular.  Among  these  are :  arithmetic,  mathematics, 
logic,  ethics,  aesthetics,  optics,  acoustics,  etc.  Poli- 
tics was  formerly  treated  as  singular  only,  but  writ- 
ers of  to-day,  as  a  rule,  treat  it  as  plural.  There  is 
excellent  authority  for  treating  United  States  either 
as  singular  or  as  plural.  The  justices  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  and  those  of  other  federal 
courts  always  treat  United  States  as  a  plural;  as, 
The  United  States  were  represented  at  The  Hague 
Peace  Congress. 

9.  An  English  and  a  Foreign  Plural. — Many 
nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  have  both 
an  English  and  a  foreign  plural  form.  Those  most 
frequently  used  are  the  following: 


ngular 

English  Plural 

Foreign  Plural 

bandit 

bandits 

banditti 

beau 

beaus 

beaux 

cherub 

cherubs 

cherubim 

focus 

focuses 

foci 

formula 

formulas 

formulae 

gymnasium 

gymnasiums 

gymnasia 

memorandum 

memorandums 

memoranda 

nucleus 

nucleuses 

nuclei 

radius 

radiuses 

radii 

seraph 

seraphs 

seraphim 

spectrum 

spectrums 

spectra 

stamen 

stamens 

stamina 

10.  Foreign  Plurals  Only. — Some  nouns  adopted 
from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original  plural 
forms.    The  more  common  of  these  are — 


16 


ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 


Singular 


Plural 


alumna  (fern.) 

alumnae 

alumnus  (mas.) 

alumni 

amanuensis 

amanuenses 

analysis 

analyses 

axis 

axes 

basis 

bases 

crisis 

crises 

datum 

data 

desideratum 

desiderata 

diaeresis 

diaereses 

ellipsis 

ellipses 

proboscis 

proboscides 

stratum 

strata 

synthesis 

syntheses 

emphasis 

emphases 

erratum 

errata 

genus 

genera 

hypothesis 

hypotheses 

madame 

mesdames 

minutia 

minutiae 

monsieur 

messieurs 

nebula 

nebulae 

oasis 

oases 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

terminus 

termini 

thesis 

theses 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

EXERCISE 

IV 

Write  the  plural  of — 

Buffalo,  mystery,  ally,  German,  duty,  calf,  bam- 
boo, salmon,  major-general,  princess,  hoof,  man-of- 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  17 

war,  talisman,  x,  cupful,  looker-on,  Frenchman, 
donkey,  Miss  Rogers,  court-martial,  journey,  Brah- 
man, forget-me-not,  Dr.  Hallam,  minister-plenipo- 
tentiary, mouthful,  mosquito,  ditch,  tyro,  ellipsis, 
genus,  Dakota,  Mrs.  Wilson,  vertebra,  heathen,  Mr. 
Stratton,  Watts,  snipe,  Dutchman,  baseball,  stimu- 
lus, datum,  Ottoman,  poet-laureate,  commander-in- 
chief,  alumna,  postmaster-general,  ipse  dixit,  halo, 
Norman,  teacup,  son-in-law,  alumnus. 

EXERCISE  V 

Each  of  the  following  nouns  has  two  plurals, 
which  are  different  in  meaning.  Use  in  sentences 
both  plurals  of  each  noun: 

brother  penny  genius  index 

die  staff  cherub  horse 

fish  foot  shot  cloth 

EXERCISE  VI 

Use  each  of  the  following  nouns  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb: 

ashes  data  suds  wages 

optics  assets  tidings  acoustics 

proceeds        news  phenomena         scissors 

GENDER 

Definition. — Gender  is  a  grammatical  property 
of  nouns  and  pronouns  by  which  objects  are  dis- 
tinguished in  regard  to  sex. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  male  object  is  in 


18 


ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 


the  masculine  gender;  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting 
a  female  object  is  in  the  feminine  gender;  a  noun  or 
pronoun  denoting  an  object  or  an  idea  that  has  no 
sex  is  in  the  neuter  gender  {neuter  means  neither). 


EXERCISE  VII 

Write  the  corresponding  masculine  or  feminine 
form  of  each  of  the  following  words,  according  as 
the  word  given  is  masculine  or  feminine.  Consult, 
if  necessary,  any  standard  work  on  grammar: 

Jew  sultana 

benefactor  maidservant 

hero  czar 

executrix  marchioness 

lass  hostess 

his  duke 

bullock  goose 

spinster  nun 

idolater  preceptor 

bride  niece 

sir  filly 

he-wolf  giant 

Henry  Frances 

Jesse  George 

hart  benefactor 
gentlewoman     schoolmaster 

Louis  landlord 


tiger 

administrator 

vixen 

emperor 

doe 

witch 

stag 

earl 

duck 

lady 

hen-sparrow 

Joseph 

Augustus 

Mrs.  Brown 

negro 

Caroline 

maiden  or  damsel 


Gender  in  Personification. — When  we  speak  of 
a  plant  or  a  lifeless  object  as  if  it  were  a  person,  we 
are  said  to  personify  it;  that  is,  we  speak  or  write 
about  it  as  we  should  of  a  person.  A  word  so  used 
is,  by  personification,  treated  as  masculine  or  femi- 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  19 

nine.  Objects  remarkable  for  size,  power,  strength, 
or  other  qualities  thought  of  as  manly,  are  referred 
to  as  masculine;  objects  remarkable  for  grace,  gen- 
tleness, beauty,  or  other  qualities  thought  of  as 
womanly,  are  referred  to  as  feminine.  Examine  the 
following  sentences: 

Earth,  with   her  thousand  voices,   praises   God. 

Spring  hangs  her  infant  blossoms  on  the  trees. 

War  smoothed  his  wrinkled  front. 

The  sun  now  rose  upon  the  right. 

Out  of  the  sea  came  he. 

The  yacht  is  on  the  rocks;  she  will  go  to  pieces. 

Note. — Certain  words,  like  author,  actor,  poet,  doctor,  have 
recently  come  to  be  considered  as  applicable  to  both  men  and 
women,  so  that  we  rarely  say  authoress,  poetess,  actress,  or  doc- 
tress.  Some  words  like  servant,  helper,  nurse,  fish,  deer,  bear, 
may  refer  to  either  a  male  being  or  a  female  being.  Unless  the 
context  makes  evident  the  gender  of  such  words,  the  gender  is 
said  to  be  undistinguished. 

CASE  FORMS  OF  PRONOUNS 

Nominative  and  Objective  Cases. — There  are 
only  seven  English  words  whose  nominative  forms 
differ  from  their  objective  forms.  These  words  are 
the  six  personal  pronouns  /,  we,  he,  she,  thou,  and 
they,  and  the  relative  (or  interrogative)  pronoun 
who.  These  words  are  used  very  frequently,  and  the 
liability  to  use  one  case  form  for  the  other  is,  there- 
fore, great.  No  mistakes  are  more  common ;  and  no 
mistakes  produce  a  more  unpleasant  effect  upon  cul- 


20  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

tivated    persons.      The    nominative    and    objective 
forms  of  these  words  are — 


Nominative 

Objective 

I 

me 

we 

us 

he 

him 

she 

her 

thou 

thee 

they 

them 

who 

whom 

Note. — The  pronoun  ye  (you)  is  not  added  to  the  seven  pro- 
nouns given  above  because  its  two  forms  are  used  interchangeably; 
however  ye  is  far  more  frequently  used  in  the  nominative  than 
in  the  objective  case.  Whoever  (whomever)  and  whosoever 
(whomsoever)  are  compounds  of  who. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  student  thoroughly  grasp 
the  following  principles  of  syntax : 

1.  A  pronoun  (or  a  noun)  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nominative  form. 

2.  A  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  the  verb 
"to  be,"  or  any  of  its  forms — am,  is,  was,  are,  were, 
etc., — is  put  in  the  nominative  form. 

3.  Words  in  apposition  are  in  the  same  case. 

4.  A  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb  or  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the  objective 
form. 

5.  You  and  it  are  both  nominative  and  objective 
in  form. 

EXERCISE  VIII 

To  the  Teacher. — It  is  important  that  both  eye  and  ear 
should  be  trained  to  correct  forms  of  expression.     A  helpful  ex- 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  21 

ercise  to  this  end  is  to  require  the  pupils  to  repeat  aloud  again 
and  again  such  forms  as:  "Is  it  I?"  "Is  it  she?"  "Is  it 
they?"  "It  is  I,"  etc.  "It  is  not  they."  "It  is  not  we." 
"It   is   not   he, ' '    etc. 

Use  the  correct  form,  I  or   me,  in  each  blank,  and 
give  reason  for  your  choice: 

1.  They  invited  Tom  and .    2.  May  Clarence 

and fetch  a  pail  of  water?    3.  Wait  for  Esther 

and  .     4.  Mother  knew  that  it  was  .     5. 

She  reproved  John  and  .     6.  He  is  not  so  tall 

as .    7.  Father  will  come,  and ,  too.    8.  The 

teacher  required  Olive  and to  copy  the  words. 

9.  Olive  and were  requested  to  copy  the  words. 

10.  May  Marion  and  go  home?     11.  If  you 

were  ,  should  you  yield?     12.  He  expects  you 

or to  meet  him.    13.  Please  let  Will  and 

go  to  the  ball  game.    14.  Who  is  there?    Only . 

15.  Uncle  bought  brother  and  tickets  for  the 

concert.    16.  The  Son  of  God  gave  His  life  for  you 

and .    17.  Between  you  and ,  I  feel  certain 

that  the  undertaking  will  fail.    18.  It  was that 

sounded  an  alarm.     19.  Every  one  is  going  except 

you  and  .     20.   There  was  no  one  there  but 

you  and .    21.  He  said  that  you  and would 

be   admitted.     22.  Is   it   he   wishes   to    see? 

23.  The  older  man  was  supposed  to  be .    24.  No, 

it  couldn't  have  been .    25.  He  is  a  more  fluent 

speaker  than  .  26.  How  can  you  speak  so  in- 
sultingly to  me, ,  who  am  your  friend? 


22  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  IX 

Insert  the  correct  form,  WE  or  us,  in  each  blank, 
and  give  the  reason  for  your  choice: 

1.  Is  it that  you  criticised?    2.  girls  are 

invited  to  go  driving  with  them.    3.  Cousin  wanted 

to  go;  so  father  took boys  and  her.    4.  They 

knew  it  was .    5.  It  was whom  you  heard. 

6.  He  took  a  picture  of  boys  sitting  on  the 

fence.     7.  The  Fosters,   as  well  as  ,   are  in- 
vited.   8.  Two  hundred  miles  stretch  between  home 

and .    9.  boys  had  to  bait  our  sister's  hook. 

10.  One  of  the  lambs  got  lost,  and  father  sent 

boys  to  look  for  it.    11.  He  said  it  was ,  but  it 

wasn't.     12.  They  didn't  succeed  any  better  than 

.     13.  boys  had  a  fine  time.     14.  It  may 

have  been whom  you  saw.    15.  The  Chinese  are 

better  imitators  than .    16.  They  will  gain  more 

than by  the  discovery  of  the  mine.    17.  I  hope 

that  they  three  will  ask five  to  go. 

EXERCISE  X 

Insert  the  correct  form,  he  or  him,  in  each  blank, 
and  justify  your  choice: 

1.  She  is  nearly  as  tall  as .    2.  If  I  were 

I  should  desist.    3.  It  might  have  been who  did 

it.    4.  His  father  is  darker  than .    5.  Is  it 

you  wish  to  see?    6.  To  Mary  and belongs  the 

credit.     7.  She  invited  them  all,  among  the 

rest.    8.  There  is  little  difference  between  you  and 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  23 

.    9.  that  overcometh  will  I  make  a  pillar 

in  the  temple.    10.  If  I  were I  would  never  be 

seen  there  again.     11.  that  cometh  to  Me  I 

will  in  nowise  cast  out.     12.  who  gives  but  a 

cup  of  cold  water,  will  Jesus  reward.    13. who 

gives  but  a  cup  of  cold  water,  will  be  remembered  by 
the  Saviour.     14.  It  should  make  no  difference  to 

either  you  or .    15.  Few  could  have  written  the 

petition  as  well  as .    16.  Boys  like  you  and 

are  expected  to  comply  gracefully.     17.  She  did  as 

well  as .    18.  It  was  Paul, whom  the  Lord 

sent  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles.     19.  who  had 

always  befriended  her,  she  now  forsook.  20.  All 
wore  silk  hats  except  Lloyd  and  . 

EXERCISE  XL 

In  each  of  the  following  blanks  insert  she  or  her, 
according  to  your  best  judgment: 

1.  He  asked  Kate  if  it  were  ,  and  she  said 

no.  2.  Gertrude  and both  are  wanted.  3.  Fa- 
ther brought and  me  in  the  automobile.    4.  It's 

,  mother  is  calling.    5.  With  Ruth  and we 

had  no  trouble.     6.  We  can  not  expect  much  from 

such  as .    7.  I  supposed  the  tall,  stately  woman 

was .    8.  The  farmer  was  afraid  to  let  you  or 

drive  the  colt.    9.  Every  one  went  except . 

10.  Should  any  one  be  disappointed,  it  will  not  be 

.     11.  If  any  one  is  late,  it  will  certainly  be 

.    12.  Before  leaving  Margaret  we  saw and 

her  baggage  safely  on  the  boat.    13. 1  dare  not  let  you 


24  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

and sit  together.  14. who  disobeys,  mother 

will  punish.    15.  who  disobeys  will  be  punished. 

EXERCISE  XII 

Insert  the  proper  form,  they  or  them,  in  each  of 
the  blanks: 

1.  It  must  have  been . 

2.  We  are  not  so  rich  as . 

3.  I  never  saw  James  and together. 

4.  Let  none  handle  it  but that  are  clean. 

5.  It  could  not  have  been ,  for were  at 

school. 

6.  None  so  deaf  as  that  will  not  hear. 

7.  Few  amateurs  could  have  done  as  well  as . 

8.  that  whisper  I  will  punish. 

EXERCISE  XIII 

Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  form  of  the  pro- 
noun, who  or  whom  : 

1. did  you  think  he  was? 

2.  can  I  trust,  if  not  him? 

3.  does  the  baby  look  like? 

4.  We  did  not  tell  her  from  the  present 

came. 

5.  are  you  writing  to? 

6.  do  you  think  will  be  elected? 

7.  will  the  court  summon? 

8.  did  you  say  sat  beside  you? 

9.  do  you  think  it  was  that  reported  the 

matter? 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  25 

10.  He  is  a  boy I  know  is  reliable. 

11.  I  don't  know to  ask  for. 

12.  She  never  knew it  was  that  spoke  to  her. 

13.  did  you  say  went  with  John? 

14.  do  you  mean? 

15.  did  the  officer  suppose  it  was? 

16.  He  confided  his  plan  to  those he  thought 

he  could  trust. 

17.  He  confided  his  plan  to  those he  thought 

favored  it. 

18.  Mr.  Whitelaw  Reid,  the  President  has 

appointed  ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  owns  the 
New  York  Tribune, 

19.  do  you  think  I  met  at  the  ferry  house? 

20.  We  left  the  man  ignorant  as  to it  was. 

21.  We  like  to  be  with  those  we  love  and 

we  know  love  us. 

22.  do  men  say  that  I,  the  Son  .of  man,  am  ? 

23.  Elect you  like. 

24.  should  I  meet  this  morning  but  my  old 

friend  Tompkins? 

25.  Near  him  sat  a  handsome  man  Harry 

knew  must  be  Maude's  brother. 

EXERCISE  XIV 

Justify  the  use  of  the  italicized  objective  form  of 
each  pronoun: 

1.  He  knew  it  to  be  me  by  my  gait. 

2.  I  suppose  it  to  be  him. 

3.  I  knew  it  to  be  them. 

4.  Whom  did  you  take  her  to  be? 


26  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

CHOICE  IN  THE  USE  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

Of  the  relative  pronouns,  who  is  used  chiefly  of 
persons  (though  sometimes  of  the  higher  animals)  ; 
the  possessive  ivhose  of  persons,  and  also  of  animals 
and  other  objects  when  euphony  will  not  admit  of 
the  possessive  phrase  of  which;  which  of  animals 
and  inanimate  things;  that  of  persons  or  other  ob- 
jects, except  after  a  preposition. 

That  is  preferred  to  ivho  (whom)  or  which — 

a.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and 
other  objects;  as,  The  men  and  the  horses  that  we 
saw  on  the  transport  are  intended  for  service  in  the 
Philippine  campaign. 

b.  When  the  antecedent  is  modified  by  an  ad- 
jective of  the  superlative  degree  of  comparison. 
(Do  not  forget  that  first,  last,  and  next  are  super- 
lative forms.) 

c.  Usually  when  the  antecedent  has  no  modifier 
except  the  relative  clause;  as,  Money  that  is  earned 
is  generally  prized. 

d.  When  the  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  except 
when  euphony  requires  the  use  of  who  or  ivhich. 

e.  Generally  when  the  antecedent  is  modified  by, 
or  represented  by,  all,  any,  each,  every,  no,  only,  or 
same;  as,  All  the  men  that  the  company  employs  are 
skilled  workers. 

The  relative  that  should  not  be  used  when  that 
is  the  antecedent  or  a  modifier  of  the  antecedent; 
as,  Do  you  know  that  man  who  is  just  stepping  upon 
the  platform? 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  27 

After  indefinite  pronouns — many,  others,  few, 
several,  some,  those,  etc., — modern  usage  favors  who 
or  which  rather  than  that. 

EXERCISE  XV 

Insert  in  each  blank  whatever  relative  pronoun 
seems  to  you  best: 

1.  Man    is   the   only   animal   -. laughs   and 

weeps. 

2.  At  the  door  I  met  an  usher,  procured 

me  a  seat. 

3.  There  are  others can  testify. 

4.  Was  it  you  or  the  wind  shut  the  door? 

5.  Time is  lost  can  never  be  reclaimed. 

6.  It  was  necessity  taught  me  Greek. 

7.  The   trees,    are    mostly    walnut,    were 

planted  by  my  grandfather. 

8.  Every  man enlisted  was  a  brave  man. 

9.  That  is  the  lady spoke  to  us  yesterday. 

10.  The  first   person   we   saw   was   Uncle 

Dick. 

11.  Those do  their  best  generally  win. 

12.  I  have  done  many  things  I  should  not 

have  done. 

13.  Mr.  Cleveland  was  the  only  President  

served  two  non-consecutive  terms. 

14.  The  horse  and  his  rider were  lost  in  the 

desert  have  been  found. 

15.  The  dog bit  the  child  has  been  killed. 


28  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

THE  NUMBER  FORM  OF  A  VERB  HAVING  A  RELA- 
TIVE PRONOUN  FOR  ITS  SUBJECT 

The  number  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  determined, 
of  course,  by  the  number  of  its  antecedent,  but  it 
is  never  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  relative.  For 
example,  who  may  be  singular  or  plural:  "A  man 
who  works  earns  the  right  to  eat;"  "They  who  die 
in  a  good  cause  will  live  again."  When  writing  the 
verb  of  a  relative  clause,  we  must,  therefore,  note 
the  number  of  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  pro- 
noun in  order  to  determine  the  number  of  the  verb. 
A  very  common  and  obstinate  error  is  to  write  such 
verbs  in  the  singular  form  when  the  plural  is  the 
correct  form.  The  opposite  mistake  is  not  nearly 
so  common.  In  the  sentence,  "Mrs.  Ward  is  one  of 
the  few  women  who  never  neglect  an  opportunity  for 
doing  good,"  the  antecedent  of  tvho  is  women,  not 
Mrs.  Ward,  or  one.  Who  is  therefore  plural,  and  its 
verb,  neglect,  is  properly  given  the  plural  form. 

EXERCISE  XVI 

Which  of  the  italicized  forms  is  correct?     Why? 

1.  She  is  one  of  the  most  successful  teachers  that 
have  (has)  ever  taught  in  our  district. 

2.  I  look  upon  it  as  one  of  the  most  feasible  plans 
that  has  (have)  yet  been  offered. 

3.  It  is  one  of  the  words  that  add  (adds)  es  to  the 
singular  to  form  the  plural. 

4.  Mark  is  one  of  those  restless  boys  who  is  (are) 
always  impatient  to  do  something.  . 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  29 

5.  You  are  not  the  only  man  that  has  (have) 
been  ignored  by  the  governor. 

6.  She  is  one  of  the  few  writers  who  are  (is) 
destined  to  be  long  remembered. 

7.  This  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  books  that 
have  (has)  issued  from  the  company's  press. 

8.  Our  home  is  one  of  those  which  command 
(commands)  a  view  of  the  bay. 

9.  Some  of  the  most  heinous  crimes  that  stains 
(stain)  the  pages  of  history  have  been  committed 
in  the  name  of  liberty. 

10.  It  was  one  of  the  most  attractive  programs 
that  has  (have)  yet  been  given  in  the  new  hall. 

POSSESSIVE  MODIFIER  BEFORE  A  VERBAL  NOUN 

The  English  language  comprises  not  a  few  nouns 
that  end  in  ing,  and  partake  of  the  nature  of  both 
noun  and  verb.  Such  nouns  are  called  verbal  nouns. 
Very  often  they  follow  a  personal  pronoun  or  a 
noun  that  stands  for  the  agent  or  the  recipient  of 
the  action  denoted  by  the  verbal  nouns.  The  noun 
or  pronoun  so  related  to  a  verbal  noun  should  take, 
as  a  rule,  the  possessive  form;  as,  "I  have  little 
hope  of  his  (not  him)  passing  the  examination/' 
A  somewhat  different  meaning  would  be  expressed 
if  the  sentence  were  written  thus:  "I  have  little 
hope  of  him  passing  the  examination."  This  latter 
meaning,  however,  is  very  seldom  the  meaning  in- 
tended. The  wording  of  the  first  sentence  illustrates 
the  rule;  that  of  the  second,  the  exception. 


30  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXAMPLES 

1.  This  can  only  be  by  his  preferring  truth  to  his 
past  apprehension  of  truth. — Emerson. 

2.  There  may  be  reason  for  a  savage's  preferring 
many  kinds  of  food  which  the  civilized  man  rejects. 
— Thoreau. 

3.  The  two  strangers  gave  me  an  account  of  their 
once  having  been  themselves  in  a  somewhat  similar 
condition. — Audubon. 

4.  Edward's  father  opposed  his  entering  the  navy. 

EXERCISE  XVII 

Distinguish  in  meaning  between  the  two  foi*ms  of 
each  sentence: 

1.  There  is  no  use  in  me  {my)  trying  to  learn 
Sanskrit. 

2.  We  had  to  laugh  at  Mary  (Mary's)  riding  a 
donkey. 

3.  Much  depends  on  the  teacher  (teacher's)  cor- 
recting the  papers. 

4.  Who  ever  heard  of  Smith  (Smith's)  running 
for  office? 

5.  There  is  little  doubt  of  him  (his)  being  pro- 
moted. 

6.  Did  you  see  Leslie  (Leslie's)  rowing? 

7.  What  do  you  think  of  Uncle  Will  (Uncle  Will's) 
studying  art? 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  £1 

PRONOUNS  AGREE  WITH  THEIR  ANTECEDENTS  IN 
NUMBER 

The  rule  that  a  pronoun  should  be  in  the  same 
number  as  its  antecedent  is  often  violated  in  con- 
nection with  such  locutions  as  anybody,  any  one, 
each,  either,  neither,  nobody,  one  after  the  other, 
man  after  man.  These  expressions  are  grammat- 
ically singular. 

a.  When,  in  a  sentence,  a  pronoun  is  used  which 
has  for  its  antecedent  one  of  the  foregoing  italicized 
expressions,  or  a  noun  modified  by  one  of  these  ex- 
pressions, the  pronoun  should  be  singular. 

b.  When  a  collective  noun  is  represented  by  a  pro- 
noun, the  pronoun  is  singular,  if  the  collection  is 
viewed  as  a  whole;  plural,  if  the  members  are 
thought  of  separately,  or  as  individuals;  as,  (1)  The 
committee  has  handed  in  its  report.  (2)  The  council 
were  not  agreed  in  their  estimate  of  the  probable 
expense. 

c.  Two  singular  subjects  connected  by  either — or, 
or  by  neither — nor,  are  represented,  if  at  all,  by  a 
singular  pronoun;  as,  Either  the  chairman  or  the 
secretary  neglected  his  duty.  Two  plural  noun's  thus 
connected  are  represented,  if  at  all,  by  a  plural  pro- 
noun; as,  Neither  teachers  nor  students  brought 
their  books. 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  pronoun: 

1.  Either  Esther  or  Ruth  will  let  you  use  

book. 


32  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

2.  Each  should  take  turn. 

3.  It  has  been  said  that  everybody  is  eloquent  at 
least  once  in life. 

4.  Many  a  brave  man  lost life  in  that  awful 

struggle. 

5.  Neither  Raleigh  nor  Gilbert  made  a  success  of 
colonizing  scheme. 

6.  Each  of  us  has faults. 

7.  Every  one  should  be  careful  of  what says 

(say). 

8.  Nobody  went  out  of  way  to  make  the 

stranger  feel  at  home. 

9.  The  senior  class  has  not  yet  elected presi- 
dent. 

10.  Each  of  the  pupils  has  own  jackknife. 

11.  Every  kind  of  insect  has  own  proper 

food. 

12.  Every  one  should  respect  the  property  of 
those  around . 

13.  Neither    the    boys    nor    the    girls    ate    

breakfast  before  going  to  the  grove. 

14. 'If  any  one  wishes  to  see  the  committee  let 
call  at  the  committee's  room. 

15.  Every  bookkeeper  and  every  clerk  received 
pay. 


16.  Neither  of  the  two  adventurers  ever  saw 

native  land  again. 

17.  Everybody  says  that  never  before  saw 

so  large  a  man. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  33 

18.  Neither  the  mayor  nor  the  district  attorney 
did duty  in  the  matter. 

19.  I  do  not  mean  that  I  think  any  one  to  blame 
for  taking  due  care  of  health. 

20.  Neither  gave  vent  to  feelings  in  words. 

21.  Each  of  the  nations  acted  according  to  

national  custom. 

22.  Not  an  officer,  not  a  private  escaped  getting 
clothes  wet. 


23.  Hansen  and  Jensen  started  off  together,  each 
with  only  a  dollar  in pocket. 

24.  Whoever  has  a  real  interest  in  the  school 
should  do best  to  get  others  interested  in  it. 

This,  These;  That,  Those. — Of  the  singular  ad- 
jectives this  and  that,  these  and  those  are  their  re- 
spective plural  forms.  Of  course  the  singular  forms 
are  used  before  singular  nouns;  the  plural,  before 
plural  nouns.  A  common  error  consists  in  using  the 
plural  form  these  or  those  for  the  singular  this  or 
that  before  the  singular  nouns  kind  and  sort,  when 
the  latter  mean  class  or  species;  as,  "These  kind 
of  trees  grow  only  in  the  far  West,"  for  "This  kind 
of  trees,"  etc.  Do  not  say,  "I  am  fond  of  these 
kind  of  nuts,"  but  "I  am  fond  of  this  kind  of  nuts." 

To  the  Teacher. — There  is  a  reason  for  the  prevalence  of 
this  solecism.  Lead  the  pupil  to  see  the  reason.  Nothing  but 
drill,  both  oral  and  written,  will  lead  the  pupil  habitually  to 
use   these   adjectives   correctly   in   such   constructions. 


34  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

AKTICLES 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  office  of  the  adjectives  the, 
a,  and  an,  they  are  often  called  articles,  by  way  of 
distinction.    Articles  always  limit  nouns. 

A  or  An. — A  and  an  are  weakened  forms  of  the 
numeral  adjective  one.  They  always  imply  oneness, 
but  in  a  sense  more  vague  and  indefinite  than  does 
the  adjective  one.  The  choice  between  a  or  an  is 
determined  by  sound.  Before  a  word  beginning  with 
a  consonant  sound,  a  is  used;  before  a  word  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel  sound,  an  is  used.  However,  sound 
and  spelling  do  not  always  coincide.  Thus  one  and 
union  begin  with  vowels,  yet  the  initial  sound  of 
each  is  a  consonant  sound.  Heir  begins  with  a  silent 
consonant;  its  initial  sound  is,  accordingly,  a  vowel 
sound.  Hence  we  say  "such  a  one,"  "a  union/'  "an 
heir,"  etc. 

Usage  is  not  uniform  as  to  a  or  an  before  words 
beginning  with  h  and  accented  on  the  second  syllable. 
We  may  say  "an  historical  work"  or  "a  historical 
work." 

The  Definite  Article. — The  is  called  the  definite 
article;  a  or  an,  the  indefinite  article.  The  definite 
article  is  used  to  point  out  some  particular  object  or 
class;  as,  The  teacher  will  give  a  lecture  on  "The 
Bee."  In  this  sentence  the  first  the  points  to  an  in- 
dividual teacher ;  the  second,  to  a  noun  used  to  repre- 
sent a  class  or  genus.  A  or  an  can  not  properly  be 
used  before  a  class  name,  as  a  class  name  stands  for 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  35 

more  than  one.  Hence  we  say,  The  horse  (not  a 
horse)  is  the  most  useful  animal. 

Omitted  and  Superfluous  Articles. — The  is 
sometimes  incorrectly  omitted  before  one  or  more 
nouns  of  a  couplet  or  series  of  nouns.  In  the  phrase, 
"the  secretary  and  treasurer,"  one  person  is  meant, 
who  is  both  secretary  and  treasurer;  but  in  the 
phrase,  "the  secretary  and  the  treasurer,"  two  per- 
sons are  meant,  one  of  whom  is  secretary  and  the 
other  treasurer.  Hence  we  say,  "The  secretary  and 
the  treasurer  both  resigned,"  not  "The  secretary  and 
treasurer  both  resigned."  Note  the  difference  be- 
tween "The  cashier  and  teller  looks  over  the  books 
each  evening"  and  "The  cashier  and  the  teller  look 
over  the  books  each  evening."  We  may  say  either 
"the  fifth  and  sixth  pages"  or  "the  fifth  and  the 
sixth  page,"  but  not  "the  fifth  and  sixth  page." 

What  difference  in  meaning  obtains  between  "a 
red,  white,  and  blue  flag"  and  "a  red,  a  white,  and  a 
blue  flag"?  The  use  of  a  superfluous  a  or  an  after 
the  words  sort  or  kind  is  an  error  exceedingly  com- 
mon; as,  in  the  sentence,  "This  is  a  rare  kind  of  an 
owl,"  or  "That  sort  of  an  education  is  not  worth 
the  getting."  We  should  say,  "This  is  a  rare  kind  of 
owl,"  etc. 

Again,  we  may  say  "all  day,"  "all  night,"  "all 
summer,"  "all  winter;"  but  not,  "all  week,"  etc.,  but 
"all  the  week,"  "all  the  month,"  "all  the  spring,"  "all 
the  autumn."  An  important  distinction  made  by 
careful  speakers  is  indicated  in  the  following  lo- 


36  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

cutions:  We  may  say  "enter  school,"  "enter  college ;" 
but,  "enter  the  grammar  school,"  "enter  the  high 
school,"  "enter  the  university." 

A  or  an  should  not  be  repeated  before  the  second 
term  when  both  terms  denote  the  same  person  or 
thing;  as,  John  is  a  better  speaker  than  writer. 
Grant  was  a  greater  soldier  than  statesman  (not  a 
statesman). 

EXERCISE  XIX 
Insert  the  wherever  needed: 

1.  The  horse  and  cow  are  two  domestic  animals. 

2.  The  man  and  bear  watched  each  other  in  si- 
lence. 

3.  The  first  and  last  stanzas  are  alike. 

4.  The  third  and  fifth  example  are  the  most  in- 
teresting. 

5.  The  mountain  and  squirrel  had  a  quarrel. 

6.  The  second  and  fourth  problems  are  the  most 
difficult. 

7.  The  superintendent  and  secretary  has  a  double 
office  to  perform. 

8.  The  passage  is  found  in  both  the  old  and  new 
edition. 

9.  In  the  copula  verb  the  present  and  past  sub- 
junctives are  different  in  form. 

10.  Illustrate  by  an  original  sentence  the  singular 
and  plural  possessives  of  the  personal  pronouns. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  37 

EXERCISE  XX 

Insert  A  or  an  wherever  needed: 

1.  A  German  and  Frenchman  were  received  by 
the  President. 

2.  Did  you  ever  see  a  sloop  and  schooner  sail  side 
by  side? 

3.  A  black  and  tan  dog  trotted  down  the  walk  to- 
gether. 

4.  A  good  speller  and  poor  speller  have  unequal 
chances  of  success. 

5.  A  terrier  and  spaniel  are  very  unlike  in  dis- 
position. 

6.  She  is  a  young  and  delicate  girl. 

7.  I  never  buy  that  sort  of  knife. 

8.  An  ax  and  adz  are  similar,  yet  different,  in 
form. 

EXERCISE  XXI 

Distinguish  between — 

1.  The  tailor  and  (the)  clothier. 

2.  Half  a  dollar.    A  half  dollar. 

3.  The  (a)  horse  is  grazing  in  the  meadow. 

4.  The  commissioners  will  investigate  the  cause  of 
(the)  strikes. 

5.  The  wise  and  (the)  good. 

6.  He  told  us  a  (the)  story. 

7.  She  employs  a  cook  and  (a)  housemaid. 

8.  The  black  and  (the)  white  cat. 

9.  The  soldier,    (the)    statesman,  and    (the)    re- 
former. 


38  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

10.  He  bought  a  cotton  and  (a)  silk  umbrella. 

11.  We  listened  to  remarks  by  the  recording  and 
(the)  corresponding  secretary. 

12.  He  had  (a)  salmon  in  his  basket. 

13.  (The)  men  ran  to  rescue  the  child. 

14.  (A)  Mr.  Brown  called  to  see  me. 

15.  There  are  (a)  few  honest  men  in  our  town. 

16.  (The)  grass  is  green. 

17.  (The)  clouds  are  beautiful. 

CORRECT  FORMS  OF  VERBS 

In  vulgar  usage,  thoughtless  persons  often  con- 
found the  ''principal  parts"  of  many  English  verbs. 
One  often  hears  such  solecisms  as  "I  done  my  part 
of  the  work,"  "He  seen  the  man  take  it,"  "He  run 
all  the  way,"  instead  of  the  correct  forms,  "I  did  my 
part  of  the  work,"  "He  saw  the  man  take  it,"  "He 
ran  all  the  way."  The  principal  parts  of  the  follow- 
ing verbs  should  be  memorized,  and  the  habit  of  us- 
ing them  correctly  should,  by  all  means,  be  acquired. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  verbs  most  liable  to 
abuse  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: — 

Present  Past  Indicative     Past  Participle 

awake  awoke  or  awaked  awaked 

begin  began  begun 

beseech  besought  besought 

blow  blew  blown 

bid  bade  bidden  or  bid 

bid  (at  auction)       bid  bidden  or  bid 

break  broke  broken 

burst  burst  burst 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR 


39 


'resent                   Past  Indicative 

Past  Participle 

bring 

brought 

brought 

catch 

caught 

caught 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

come 

came 

come 

dive 

dived 

dived 

do 

did 

done 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

flee 

fled 

fled 

flow 

flowed 

flowed 

fly 

flew 

flown 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

get 

got 

got  or  gotten 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang 

hung,  hanged* 

hung,  hanged* 

know 

knew 

known 

lay  (transitive) 

laid 

laid 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay 

lain 

plead 

pleaded 

pleaded 

prove 

proved 

proved** 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

raise  (transitive) 

raised 

raised 

rise  (intransitive] 

►  rose 

risen 

ring 

rang 

rung 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

set  (transitive) 

set 

set 

sit  (intransitive) 

sat 

sat 

*  Things  are  hung  on  nails,  etc.,  men  are  hanged  on  the  gallows. 
**  Proven   is   not   sanctioned   by   good   usage. 


40 


ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 


^resent 

Past  Indicative 

Past  Participle 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

show 

showed 

shown 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

slay 

slew 

slain 

swim 

swam 

swum 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

wake  (transitive) 

woke 

waked 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

weave 

wove 

woven 

write 

wrote 

written 

EXERCISE  XXII 


Fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  form  of  the  verb 
lie  (to  recline),  or  of  the  verb  lay  (to  cause  to  lie): 

1.  The  book on  the  table. 

2.  The  album on  the  table  yesterday. 

3.  Snow  on  the  ground  two  months  last 

winter. 

4.  He  has out  the  ground. 

5.  After  I  had down,  I  remembered  that  I 

had my  purse  on  the  chair  by  the  open  window. 

6.  I  found  the  magazine on  the  table. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  41 

7.  During  the  storm  yesterday  the  ship  at 

anchor. 

8.  Slowly  and  sadly  we him  down. 

9.  Five  cats asleep. 

10.  Uneasy the  head  that  wears  a  crown. 

11.  The  tree  has  there  since  last  winter. 

12.  Birds  and  fishes  are  spoken  of  as eggs. 

13.  Having  read  the  pamphlet,  I  it  on  the 

table. 

14.  After  the  battle  many  fallen   knights  

about  their  king. 

15.  The  tired  traveler  in  bed  eight  hours 

last  night. 

16.  The  knife  had in  the  water  so  long  that 

its  parts  separated  when  touched. 

17.  Get    up,    Tom.      You've    in    bed    long 

enough. 

18.  You  will  find  the  tools  where  you them. 

19.  I  found  my  dictionary  all  warped.     It  had 
in  the  sun  all  day. 

20.  Dapple  had  to down  on  all  fours  before 

Dick  could  bestride  her. 

21.  The  ship  has  at  anchor  since  Monday. 

22.  The  footman  was  so  weary  that  he down 

in  his  clothes. 


42  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  XXIII 

Fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  form  of  the  in- 
transitive verb  sit,  or  of  the  transitive  verb  set. 
Where  two  forms  are  applicable,  name  both: 

1.  I  wish  you  would still  while  I  write  the 

address. 

2.  I  in  my  chair,   and  as  I   dozed,   some 

one a  vase  of  flowers  on  the  table  by  my  side. 

3.  Your  coat  well. 

4.  He  has all  day  in  silence. 

5.  I  have a  guard  over  my  tongue. 

6.  He  the  basket  of  -eggs  on  the  counter. 

7.  the  chair  in  the  corner  and  let  it . 

8.  We  have  three hens.    We them  last 

week. 

9.  After  a  hen  has  been she  is  a hen. 

10.  He  up  late  last  night. 

11.  He in  the  front  row. 

12.  I  traps  in  the  woods  last  winter. 

13.  The  cat up  a  howl. 

14.  John up  late  last  night  to  write  letters. 

15.  "We  may  it  down  that  by  the  age  of 

twenty  a  boy's  character  has  become  either 

for  good  or  for  bad." 

16.  There  the  setter  with  a  bird  under  his 

paws. 

17.  We  in  the  sun  and  fished. 

18.  down  and  rest. 

19.  While  Joe  idle,  others  were  toiling  on 

to  the  goal  they  had before  them. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  43 

20.  James himself  to  work,  and steadily 

at  work  for  two  hours. 

21.  Neither  do  men  light  a  candle  and  it 

under  a  bushel. 

22.  He by  the  hour  talking  religion. 

23.  Let  us here  and  listen  to  Nature's  voices. 

24.  The  nurse  had  to up  all  night. 

25.  Last  evening  we around  the  fire  telling 

stories. 

EXERCISE  XXIV 

Fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  form  of  the  in- 
transitive verb  rise,  or  of  the  transitive  verb  raise  : 

1.  The  river  six  inches  during  the  night. 

2.  All  the  streams  have  been  rapidly  . 

3.  She  could  not  get  her  bread  to properly. 

4.  Mother  says  that  her  bread  has  nicely. 

5.  The  price  of  wheat  has . 

6.  The  water so  high  that  it the  bridge 

an  inch. 

7.  Abraham  early  in  the  morning. 

8.  Many  are  they  that up  against  me. 

9.  The  workmen  have the  railway  bed. 

10.  A  fog from  the  bay. 

11.  The  river  is  rapidly  . 

EXERCISE  XXV 

Use  in  sentences  the  past  tense  and  the  present 
perfect  tense  of  each  of  the  following  verbs: 

shrink  blow  lay  dive 

come  throw  wake  rise 


44 


ESSENTIALS   OF  ENGLISH 


blow 

do 

fly 

overflow 

lie 

freeze 

eat 

forget 

shoe 

speak 

set 

awake 

wring 

rise 

shake 

steal 

know 

plead 

raise 

go 

swear 

spring 

prove 

drive 

catch 

burst 

sing 

slay 

write 

forbid 

teach 

take 

see 

lose 

bring 

ring 

sit 

loose 

lead 

swing 

swim 

begin 

run 

beseech 

To  the  Teacher. — Test  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  spell  cor- 
rectly these  verba  when  changed  to  the  present  participle,  or  mg- 
torni. 

MAY  OR  CAN 

Can  is  often  wrongly  used  for  may,  and  could  for 
might.  May  expresses  permission  or  probability; 
can  expresses  ability  or  power.  When  a  boy  says> 
"I  can  solve  that  problem,"  he  means  that  he  is  able 
to  do  it.  But  when  he  asks,  "May  I  leave  the  room?" 
he  means,  Will  you  permit  me  to  leave  the  room? 
This  distinction  should  be  remembered  and  habit- 
ually observed  in  practice. 

EXERCISE  XXVI 

Insert  can  or  may  where  it  is  needed: 
1.  I  look  through  your  magazine? 


2. 


Arthur  and  I  be  excused  from  the  phys- 


ical culture  exercises  to-day  ? 

3.  the  baby  walk  yet? 

4.  a  hen  swim? 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  45 

5.  I  go  with  the  rest? 

6.  I  ask  a  favor? 

7.  Mother,  I  have  more  of  the  melon? 

8.  You say  that  I  opened  the  letter  by  mis- 
take. 

9.  it  be  true  that  the  letter  was  returned? 

10.  we  have  the  pleasure  of  your  company  to 

dinner  ? 

Explain  the  change  in  meaning  according  as  may 
or  can  is  used  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Father  says  you do  it. 

2.  Eunice  ride  the  bicycle? 

3.  I  help  you? 

4.  I  depend  on  you? 

5.  you  come,  too? 

6.  he  talk  Spanish? 

7. you  give  a  dollar? 

8.  you  climb  this  oak? 

9.  Earl  go  to  the  concert  to-night? 

UNCHANGEABLE  FACTS 

General  or  unchangeable  truths  are  correctly  ex- 
pressed in  the  form  of  the  present  tense.  "How 
far  did  you  say  it  was  from  New  York  to  Phila- 
delphia?" should  be  "How  far  did  you  say  it  is  from 
New  York  to  Philadelphia?"  If  it  is  true  that  the 
air  has  weight,  it  has  always  been  true  and  always 
will  be  true.  Hence  one  should  write,  "Ancient 
philosophers  knew  that  the  air  has  (not  had) 
weight?" 


46  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  XXVII 

Which  form  is  correct?    Why? 

1.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  earth  was   (is) 
round. 

2.  What  did  you  say  your  uncle's  name  is  (was)  ? 

3.  Many  years  ago  I  was  taught  that  frost  is 
(was)  frozen  dew. 

4.  In  what  state  did  you  say  Cedar  Rapids  was 
(is)  ? 

5.  The  teacher  told  me  that  the  cube  root  of  343 
is  (was)  seven. 

6.  Whose  home  is    (was)    that  which  we  just 
passed  ? 

7.  He  repeated  to  us  the  truth  that  honesty  ivas 
(is)  the  best  policy. 

8.  Is  he  very  sick? — I  should  say  he  was   (is). 

9.  Was  it  Carlyle  who  asserted  that  earnestness 
alone  makes  (made)  life  eternity? 

10.  Why,  the  poor  fellow  hardly  knew  that  two 
and  two  made  (make)  four. 

11.  The  preacher  declared  that  God  upholds  (up- 
held) all  things  by  the  word  of  His  power. 

12.  Where  did  you  say  Antwerp  is  (ivas)  ? 

13.  I  think  it  was  Plato  who  first  asserted  that 
virtue  is  (was)  its  own  reward. 

14.  His  disappointment  proved  to  him  that  there 
ivas  (is)  many  a  slip  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip. 

15.  The  ancients  believed  that  the  earth  is  (was) 
the  center  of  the  universe. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  47 

16.  What  did  he  say  the  new  minister's  name  was 
(is)? 

17.  Did  you  learn  how  far  it  is  (was)  from  Seattle 
to  San  Diego? 

USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  THE  PRESENT  AND  THE  PER- 
FECT INFINITIVE 
To  teach,  to  write,  to  do  are  examples  of  the  Pres- 
ent Infinitive;  to  have  taught,  to  have  written,  to 
have  done,  of  the  Perfect  Infinitive.  As  a  rule,  an 
infinitive  is  used  in  close  connection  with  a  finite 
verb.  It  is  proper  to  say,  "I  am  glad  to  have  seen 
Yosemite  Valley,"  "I  felt  sorry  to  have  hurt  his  feel- 
ings,"  "He  claims  to  have  taught  in  Paris."  In 
these  statements  the  action  or  feeling  expressed  by 
each  predicate  looks  to  the  past.  Such  a  predicate 
may  properly  come  before  a  perfect  infinitive.  But 
when  the  action  or  feeling  expressed  by  a  verb  either 
in  the  present  tense  or  in  the  past  tense  looks  to 
the  future  at  the  time  it  was  or  is  made,  the  verb  may 
properly  come  before  a  present  infinitive,  but  not 
a  perfect  infinitive;  as,  "I  expected  to  meet  you 
there ;"  not,  "I  expected  to  have  met  you  there."  The 
mental  act  expressed  by  the  verb  expected  looked  to 
the  future  at  the  time  the  act  was  experienced.  It 
is  altogether  proper  to  say,  "Romulus  was  supposed 
to  have  founded  Rome,"  because  the  concept  ex- 
pressed by  was  supposed  looks  to  the  past.  But  to 
say,  "I  intended  to  have  done  it  yesterday,"  is 
incorrect,  because  the  mental  act  expressed  by  in- 
tended looked  to  the  future  at  the  time  it  was  ex- 


48  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

perienced.     It  should  be,  "I  intended  to  do  it  yes- 
terday." 

EXERCISE  XXVIII 

Which  form  is  correct? 

1.  I  meant  to  write   (to  have  ivritten)  before  I. 
left  the  city. 

2.  He  went  sooner  than  he  expected  to  have  gone 
(to  go). 

3.  I  had  hoped  to  have  met  (to  meet)  you  at  the 
station. 

4.  Captain   John  Smith   is  known  to  have    (to 
have  had)  many  narrow  escapes. 

5.  He  hoped  to  win  (to  have  won)  the  suit,  and 
was  much  surprised  at  the  decision  of  the  court. 

6.  They  intended  to  return   (to  have  returned) 
before  the  fifteenth  of  last  month. 

7.  We  did  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have 
done  (to  do). 

8.  I  should  like  to  have  heard  (to  hear)  Burke's 
great  speech  in  defense  of  the  American  colonies. 

9.  It  was  the  policemen's  duty  to  prevent    (to 
have  prevented)  the  outrage. 

10.  They  meant  to  start   (to  have  started)   long 
before. 

11.  He  is  said  to  lose  (to  have  lost)  hundreds  of 
dollars. 

12.  General  Meade  intended  to  attack    (to  hare 
attacked)  Lee's  forces  at  daybreak. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  49 

FORMS  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 

The  subjunctive  mode  expresses  action,  being,  or 
state,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  something  merely  thought 
of,  supposed,  or  wished.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive 
mode  does  not  change  its  form  to  indicate  the  per- 
son and  number  of  its  subject,  except  in  the  past 
tense  of  the  verb  to  be  when  its  subject  is  thou.  It 
is  only  in  the  case  of  the  verb  to  be  that  the  sub- 
junctive has  distinct  forms  for  the  present  and 
past  tenses.     Thus: 

Present  Past 

Indicative    Subjunctive   Indicative     Subjunctive 

I  am  I  be  I  ivas  I  were 

Thou  art  Thou  be  Thou  wast  Thou  ivert 

He  is  He  be  He  was  He  were 

We  are  We  be  We  were  We  were 

You  are  You  be  You  were  You  were 

They  are  They  be  They  were  They  were 

Examples  of  the  subjunctive  form  of  to  be: 
Hallowed  be  Thy  name. 
Would  that  Doctor  Brown  were  here. 
If  I  were  he,  I  would  not  yield. 
Judge  not  that  ye  be  not  judged. 
If  Will  ivere  more  studious  he  would  rank  second 
to  none. 

The  following  formula  serves  to  illustrate  the 
difference  between  the  second  and  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  indicative  mode  and  the  second  and 
the  third  person  singular  of  the  subjunctive  mode: 


50  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Present  Past 

Indicative       Subjunctive  Indicative       Subjunctive 

I  write  I  write  I  wrote  I  wrote 

Thou  writest  Thou  write  Thou  wrotest  Thou  wrote 
He  writes        He  write       He  wrote         He  wrote 

Examples  of  the  Subjunctive  of  Other  Verbs  Than 
to  be. — If  thine  eye  offend  thee,  pluck  it  out. 
If  he  promise,  he  will  perform.  Thy  money  perish 
with  thee.  The  law  is  good  if  a  man  use  it  lawfully. 
Govern  well  thy  appetite,  lest  sin  surprise  thee. 
Though  He  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  Him. 

The  subjunctive  idea  usually  occurs  in  conditional 
(dependent)  clauses.  Such  clauses  are  generally 
— by  no  means  always — introduced  by  if,  though, 
unless,  lest,  whether,  or  similar  subordinate  con- 
junctions. The  clause,  "If  he  had  been  there,"  may 
be  put  thus :  "Had  he  been  there,"  thus  avoiding  the 
use  of  the  conjunction  if. 

Note. — It  is  important  to  remember  that  not  all  clauses  that 
are  conditional  in  form  are  subjunctive  in  office.  If  the  clause 
denotes  a  fact  as  opposed  to  a  mere  wish,  to  a  mere  supposition, 
or  to  a  future  contingency  (uncertainty),  its  verb  is  not  subjunc- 
tive, but  indicative,  in  mode;  as,  "If  Edward  VII  is  King,  he  has 
less  real  power  than  his  Prime  Minister."  The  clause,  "If  Edward 
VII  is  King, ' '  is  conditional  in  form,  but  not  in  essence,  as  it 
denotes  a  fact.  The  thought  is,  that  notwithstanding  his  being 
King,  Edward  has  less  power  than  his  Prime  Minister.  But  in 
the  sentence,  ' '  If  Prince  Henry  were  Emperor  of  Germany,  the 
army  would  be  made  less  conspicuous, ' '  the  if -clause  expresses 
a  mere  supposition,  a  thought  contrary  to  fact.  Hence  the  verb 
were  is  subjunctive  in  office. 


APPLIED  GRAMMAR  51 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  most  frequently  used 
to  express — 

a.  Future  contingency;  as,  If  it  rain  to-morrow, 
we  shall  not  go.  Though  he  forsake  me,  I  will  not 
forsake  him. 

b.  Mere  supposition;  as,  If  I  were  chairman,  I 
should  not  entertain  the  motion.  If  he  were  not 
my  neighbor,  I  should  not  vote  for  him. 

c.  A  mere  wish;  as,  Would  that  the  teacher  were 
here.  I  wish  I  were  an  artist.  Oh,  that  I  had  the 
wings  of  a  dove. 

d.  An  intention  not  yet  carried  out;  as,  the  de- 
cision of  the  chair  is  that  this  question  be  further 
discussed  at  the  next  regular  meeting.  The  sen- 
tence is  that  you  be  imprisoned  for  six  months. 

In  respect  to  one  of  the  offices  of  the  subjunctive, 
Mr.  H.  G.  Buehler  writes: 

u Wishes  are  naturally  expressed  in  the  subjunc- 
tive. The  present  subjunctive  denotes  a  wish  for 
the  future;  as,  'Thy  kingdom  come.'  The  past  sub- 
junctive denotes  a  wish  for  the  present  which  is  un- 
fulfilled ;  as,  'I  wish  I  were  a  bird/  The  past  perfect 
subjunctive  denotes  a  wish  contrary  to  a  past  fact; 
as,  'I  wish  you  had  been  there.'  " 

EXERCISE  XXIX 

What  verbs  are  subjunctive?  Why?  What 
clauses  are  conditional  only  in  form,  and  therefore 
not  subjunctive  in  office? 

1.  If  I  were  sure  of  what  you  tell  me,  I  should  not 
hesitate  in  the  matter. 


52  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

2.  Though  I  were  to  implore  his  forgiveness,  he 
would  not  grant  it. 

3.  Though  Thackeray  was  born  in  India,  he  was 
not  a  Hindu,  but  an  Englishman. 

4.  Though  Texas  has,  of  all  the  states,  the  great- 
est area,  it  has  by  no  means  the  greatest  population. 

5.  Though  Abraham  is  the  father  of  the  faith- 
ful, he  was  a  man  of  like  passions  with  ourselves. 

6.  Though  he  were  the  king  himself,  he  could  not 
release  you. 

7.  Had  he  been  prudent,  he  would  not  have  blun- 
dered. 

8.  Tf  it  is  raining,  I  will  go  anyhow. 

9.  Though  Burke  was  the  most  learned  publicist 
of  his  day,  he  was  not  by  nature  an  orator. 

10.  If  he  promise,  he  will  perform. 

11.  If  a  man  smite  his  servant  and  he  die,  he 
shall  surely  be  put  to  death. 

12.  Though  he  fall,  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast 
down. 

13.  Whether  she  go  or  stay,  my  plan  will  not  be 
changed. 

14.  If  the  wind  blow  too  hard,  we  shall  capsize. 

15.  I  should  be  sorry  if  John  were  to  fail. 

16.  If  books  are  cheap,  a  fourth  of  the  people 
never  read  one. 

17.  Were  I  not  your  friend,  I  should  not  advise 
you  as  I  do. 

18.  If  Thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not 
died. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  53 

19.  Thy  money  perish  with  thee. 

20.  If  it  be  possible,  as  much  as  lieth  in  you,  live 
peaceably  with  all  men. 

21.  Were  it  true,  I  would  say  so. 

22.  Though  our  legislators  are  wise,  they  make 
mistakes. 

*EXERCISE  XXX 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  inserting 
were  or  was,  in  each  case  giving  a  reason  for  your 
choice: 

1.  If  I you,  I  would  tell  everything. 

2.  I  sure  of  it,  I  would  say  so. 

3.  0 I  where  I  would  be! 

4.  If  he with  you,  why  did  he  not  tell  you 

his  troubles? 

5.  If  I wrong,  you  should  have  told  me. 

6.  he  king,  I  would  not  obey  him. 

7.  If  he  be  industrious,  I  shall  reward  him. 

8.  If  he industrious,  I  should  overlook  his 

failures. 

9.  If  the  work done,  we  could  play. 

10.  He  speaks  as  if  he  in  earnest. 

11.  If  he generous,  he  would  not  treat  them 

so. 

12.  Suppose  you given  the  money,  what  could 

you  do? 

13.  Speak  as  if  you confident. 

14.  If  he chosen,  he  could  not  do  the  work. 


^Suggested  by  Professor   Alfred   M.   Hitchcock. 


54  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

15.  If  he  disappointed,  he  has  kept  quiet 

about  it. 

16.  I  wish  I  as  happy  as  you. 

17.  They  consulted  the  barometer  to  see  if  it 

going  to  rain. 

18.  The  squirrels  are  scampering  about  as  if  au- 
tumn   all  too  short. 

19.  To  him  the  little  light  seemed  as  if  it  

a  comforting  friend. 

20.  The  hailstones  rattled  against  the  windows 
as  if  some  one throwing  pebbles. 

21.  While  making  a  humorous  remark,  he  pre- 
served a  stern  expression  as  if  what  he saying 

the  most  serious  thing  imaginable. 

AGREEMENT  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE 

General  Rule. — A  finite  verb,  correctly  used, 
agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

Though  long  established  by  good  usage,  the  fol- 
lowing principles  are  not  infrequently  violated  by 
careless  writers  or  speakers : 

a.  The  pronoun  you  whether  singular  or  plural  in 
meaning  takes  a  plural  verb ;  as,  John,  you  -are  more 
fortunate  than  most  of  us. 

b.  When  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular  number 
is  viewed  as  a  unit,  it  takes  a  singular  verb;  when 
the  members  of  the  collection  are  thought  of  as  in- 
dividuals, it  is  plural  in  sense,  and  takes  a  plural 
verb.  Examples:  The  senate  has  adjourned.  The 
jury  are  divided  in  their  judgment. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  55 

Note. — In  the  application  of  this  principle  much  depends  on 
the  writer's  own  judgment.  Mr.  Froude  wrote:  "A  number 
of  jeweled  paternosters  was  attached  to  her  girdle."  Another 
writer  of  equal  repute  might  have  preferred  a  plural  verb  after 
number. 

c.  When  the  subject  consists  of  singular  nouns 
or  pronouns  connected  by  or,  either — or,  or  neither 
— nor,  the  verb  should  be  singular;  when  the  sub- 
ject consists  of  plural  nouns  or  pronouns  connected 
similarly,  the  verb  should  be  plural;  when  the  sub- 
ject consists  of  two  nouns  or  pronouns,  one  of  which 
is  singular  and  the  other  plural,  the  verb  should 
agree  with  the  one  nearest  to  it.  Examples :  Neither 
the  cashier  nor  the  teller  was  suspected  of  wrong- 
doing. Either  the  freshmen  or  the  sophomores  are 
responsible  for  the  damage.  Neither  the  father  nor 
his  sons  are  responsible  for  the  loss. 

d.  The  terms  each,  every,  many  a,  either,  neither, 
everybody,  anybody,  everyone,  and  anyone  are  sin- 
gular in  sense,  and  if  followed  by  a  verb,  the  verb 
is  singular.  Examples :  Everyone  of  us  has  had  his 
bitter  experiences.  Neither  of  us  has  mistaken  his 
calling.  Nobody  but  you  and  me  knows  where  it  is. 
Everyone  of  the  boys  was  promoted.  Many  a  brave 
man  has  given  his  life  for  the  honor  of  his  country. 

e.  Professor  A.  S.  Hill  writes:  "When  the  subject 
though  plural  in  form  is  singular  in  sense,  the  verb 
should  be  singular;  when  the  subject  though  singu- 
lar in  form  is  plural  in  sense,  the  verb  should  be 
plural;  as,  'Gulliver's  Travels/  was  written  by 
Swift.    Five  hundred  dollars  is  a  large  sum.    Half 


56  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

of  them  are  gone.  Thirty-four  years  affects  one's 
remembrance  of  some  experiences.  Economics  of- 
fers a  wide  field  for  study." 

f.  Words  joined  to  the  subject  by  with,  of,  as  ivell 
as,  in  addition  to,  or  together  ivith  are  not  of  the 
same  grammatical  value  as  the  subject,  but  being 
parenthetical,  they  do  not  affect  the  number  of  the 
verb.  Examples :  Asia,  as  well  as  Europe,  was  daz- 
zled. General  Custer,  with  all  his  men,  was  killed 
by  the  Indians.  The  interest,  in  addition  to  other 
expenses,  was  paid  from  the  profits. 

g.  When  a  verb  is  placed  between  its  two  sub- 
jects, it  agrees  in  number  and  person  with  the  first; 
as,  The  leader  of  the  regiment  was  captured,  and 
all  his  men. 

EXERCISE  XXXI 

Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  form  of  the  verb 
to  be: 

1.  Mathematics my  favorite  study. 

2.  either  of  you  going  to  the  concert? 

3.  Ten  dollars  a  week all  he  earns. 

4.  Our  success  or  our  failure  largely  the 

result  of  our  own  actions. 

5.  Every  sound  and  every  echo  listened  to 

for  two  hours. 

6.  The  Epic,  as  well  as  the  Drama,  divided 

into  tragedy  and  comedy. 

7.  Every  week,  nay,  almost  every  day,  set 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  57 

down  in  their  calendar  for  some  appropriate  cele- 
bration. 

8.  Neither  birch,  poplar,  nor  pine  so  hard 

as  oak. 

9.  Neither  North  nor  South  slow  to  fight 

against  Spain. 

10.  Each  of  these  states a  part  of  the  Union. 

11.  None  so  deaf  as  he  that  will  not  hear. 

12.  The  crowd all  shouting. 

13.  Neither  the  eaves  nor  the  shingles  in- 
jured by  the  falling  of  the  tree. 

14.  The  king  of  France,  with  forty  thousand  men, 
marching  up  the  hill. 

15.  Half  the  oranges gone. 

16.  Half  the  month gone. 

17.  A  fine  collection  of  coins  displayed. 

18.  Not  one  of  all  the  pupils able  to  answer 

the  question. 

19.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides explained 

in  the  second  chapter. 

20.  Neither  you  nor  I subject  to  these  rules. 

21.  Not  one  in  ten  likely  to  be  admitted. 

22.  A  block  and  tackle  used. 

23.  Nine-tenths  of  his  troubles  the  fruit  of 

his  shiftlessness. 

24.  Their  religion,  as  well  as  their  customs  and 
manners, strangely  misrepresented. 

25.  Either  the  proprietor  or  his  servants to 

blame. 

26.  Either  the  owners  or  the  keeper to  blame. 


58  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

27.  All  work  and  no  play  responsible  for 

Jack's  dullness. 

28.  A  hundred  miles not  far. 

29.  Every  mountain,  hill,  and  valley clothed 

in  vernal  beauty. 

30.  A  hundred  yards  of  railway  track under 

water. 

31.  Pictures  a  common  noun. 

32.  A  number  of  the  boys  waiting  at  the 

gate. 

The  following  pertinent  note  is  by  Professor  E. 
H.  Lewis: 

"When  the  subject  is  such  an  expression  as  either 
he  or  I  the  question  arises  whether  we  shall  say  is 
or  am.  It  is  best  in  such  cases  to  avoid  the  difficulty 
by  so  changing  the  sentence  as  to  use  both  is  and  am. 
We  say,  Either  he  is  to  blame,  or  I  am.  In  like 
manner  we  say,  Either  you  are  to  blame,  or  I  am; 
Either  he  is  to  blame  or  you  are." 

SHALL  AND  WILL;  SHOULD  AND  WOULD 

Shall  and  will  are  somewhat  troublesome  because 
each  performs  a  double  office,  sometimes  expressing 
simple  future — also  called  pure  future — and  some- 
times expressing  what  is  called  volition.  Volition 
means  an  act  of  the  will.  When  we  express  a  de- 
termination to  do  a  certain  act,  or  promise  or 
threaten  to  do  it,  we  express  volition. 

When  we  express  mere  intention  or  state  what  is 
sure  to  happen  regardless  of  our  will,  we  state  a 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  59 

simple  future.  The  distinction  between  simple  fu- 
turity and  volition  must  be  clearly  understood  before 
one  can  apply  the  rules  governing  the  use  of  shall 
and  will. 

a.  Shall  used  with  the  first  person  and  will  with 
the  second  or  the  third  express  a  simple  future ;  as, 
I  shall  go.    We  shall  go.    You  will  go.    He  will  go. 

b.  Will  used  with  the  first  person,  and  shall  with 
the  second  or  the  third  express  volition;  as,  I  will 
go  (determination).    You  shall  go.    He  shall  go. 

c.  "In  a  question  use  shall  in  the  /w*s£  person;  with 
the  second  or  ^/w'rd  persons  use  sftaZZ  when  s/ia^ 
is  expected  in  the  answer,  will  when  zm'M  is  expected 
in  the  answer." 

To  study  a  few  illustrative  sentences  will  help  us 
to  grasp  more  fully  the  meaning  of  these  rules. 

1.  "I  shall  be  twenty  next  Tuesday."  (Simple  fu- 
ture.) The  speaker  here  states  what  must  happen 
regardless  of  his  will. 

2.  "I  shall  be  happy  to  meet  your  friend."  (Sim- 
ple future.)  Here  the  speaker  announces  what  he 
knows  will  be  true  regardless  of  his  will. 

3.  "I  will  be  heard  in  this  matter."  (Volition.) 
Here  the  speaker  expresses  determination.  He  re- 
solves to  be  heard  whether  others  will  have  it  so  or 
not.  If  the  speaker  should  say  instead,  •  I  shall  be 
heard  in  this  matter,  he  would  state  simply  what 
he  knows  is  sure  to  happen  without  the  necessity 
of  his  willing  it  to  happen ;  he  would  express  a  sim- 
ple future. 


60  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

4.  "I  will  give  you  the  money  to-morrow."  (Voli- 
tion.) In  this  sentence  the  speaker  makes  an  em- 
phatic promise  to  pay  the  money.  There  is  here  an 
expression  of  the  will.  He  aims  to  reassure  the 
person  addressed. 

5.  "You  will  find  him  reliable."  (Simple  future.) 
The  speaker  does  not  here  express  determination, 
or  make  a  promise  or  a  threat,  but  states  what  he 
believes  to  be  certain.  Had  the  speaker  said,  "You 
shall  find  him  reliable,"  he  would  have  expressed  an 
absurdity. 

6.  "You  shall  give  me  a  hearing."  (Volition.)  In 
this  sentence  the  speaker  announces  determination. 
The  hearing  shall  be  given,  if  he  can  possibly  bring 
it  about,  regardless  of  the  wishes  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. 

7.  "John  will  know  the  result  by  four  o'clock." 
(Simple  future.) 

8.  "John  shall  know  the  result  by  four  o'clock." 
(Volition.) 

In  the  first  of  these  two  sentences  the  speaker 
states  his  conviction — not  determination  or  a  prom- 
ise— that  the  result  will  be  known  to  John  by  four 
o'clock.  In  the  second  sentence  he  promises  that  he 
will  see  to.  it  that  John  be  apprised  of  the  result  by 
four  o'clock.  He  wills  that  it  shall  be  so.  But  in  the 
first  he  merely  states  his  belief  that  it  will  be  so. 

9.  "Shall  you  go  to  the  park  this  afternoon?" 
(Simple  future.) 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  61 

10.  "Will  you  go  to  the  park  this  afternoon?" 
(Volition.) 

The  first  is  a  simple  inquiry,  and  expects  an  an- 
swer containing  the  word  shall.  The  second  has  the 
nature  of  a  petition  and  means  "Will  you  agree  to  go 
to  the  park?"  It  expects  an  answer  containing  the 
word  will  or  its  equivalent;  or  the  answer  may  be 
"I  can  not." 

"Official  courtesy,  in  order  to  avoid  the  semblance 
of  compulsion,"  says  Mr.  Ayres,  "conveys  its  com- 
mands in  the  you-will  form  instead  of  the  strictly 
grammatical  you-shall  form.  It  says,  for  example, 
'You  will  proceed  to  Key  West,  where  you  will  find 
further  instructions  awaiting  you.'  " 

Should  and  would  are  in  form,  but  not  always  in 
sense,  the  past  tense  of  shall  and  ivill  respectively. 
When  used  in  this  way  they  are  practically  gov- 
erned by  the  same  rules  as  shall  and  will.  Both 
should  and  ivould,  however,  sometimes  perform  other 
duties.  Should  may  be  used  for  ought;  as,  Children 
should  be  polite  to  their  parents.  Would  is  some- 
times used  subjunctively  to  express  a  strong  wish; 
as,  Would  that  I  could  undo  the  wrong! 

The  most  common  and  obstinate  error  in  the  use 
of  these  four  auxiliaries  is  the  practice  of  using 
will  or  would  with  a  subject  noun  or  pronoun  in  the 
first  person,  when  shall  or  should  is  the  correct  form. 
Will  or  would  should  be  used  after  a  first  personal 
subject,  only  to  express  volition,  or  determination. 
In  all  other  cases  use  shall  or  should,  according  to 
need,  with  the  first  person. 


62  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

To  the  Teacher. — The  pupil  should  be  given  extended  practice 
in  orally  repeating  sentences  containing  shall  or  should  used 
with  the  first  person.  The  ear  should  be  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
shall  or  should  in  sentences  like  the  following: 

1.  I  shall  be  glad  to  come. 

2.  I  shall  not  be  afraid  to  say  so. 

3.  I  shall  be  happy  to  see  him. 

4.  We  shall  be  at  home  then. 

5.  We  shall  be  drowned  if  the  canoe  capsizes. 

6.  I  shall  be  asleep  before  ten. 

7.  We  shall  be  worse  off  than  at  present. 

8.  I  shall  be  sorry  if  he  fails. 

9.  We  shall  reach  Boston  in  time. 

10.  When  shall  I  be  well,  Doctor? 

11.  Shall  I  report  the  result? 

12.  We  shall  all  be  dead  before  that  happens. 

13.  I  shall  get  out  of  breath  if  I  run  much  longer. 

14.  We  shall  be  pleased  to  see  you  Tuesday. 

15.  How   dark   it  grows!      We   shall   surely   get   wet. 

16.  I  shall  fall  if  I  climb  that  tree. 

EXERCISE  XXXII 

Insert  will  or  shall  according  to  the  need  of  each 
sentence: 

1.  We need  umbrellas,  I  think. 

2.  You  surely  capsize. 

3.  I  be  obliged  to  return  home. 

4.  We break  through  the  ice  if  we  are  not 

careful. 

5.  He not  go  home  until  he  has  learned  his 

lesson. 

6.  We not  do  this  under  any  circumstances. 

7.  I succeed  in  spite  of  his  opposition. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  63 

8.  You stay  whether  you  wish  to  stay  or  not. 

9.  I do  my  best,  come  what  may. 

10.  You  fall  if  you  climb  that  tree. 

11.  You have  a  warm  day  for  your  journey. 

12.  Do  you  think  we have  rain? 

13.  We  find  ourselves  much  mistaken. 

14.  Arthur  thinks  he probably  live  to  old  age. 

15.  They  say  I find  public  libraries  in  every 

village. 

16.  Blanche  tells  me  that  she be  sixteen  to- 
morrow. 

17.  If  we  examine  the  falling  snow,  we find 

that  each  flake  is  regular  in  form. 

18.  I  hope  we be  in  time  to  be  admitted. 

19.  you  be  at  leisure  this  evening? 

20.  I feel  greatly  obliged  if  you ask  for 

my  mail. 

21.  I go,  and  nobody detain  me. 

22.  I have  completed  the  task  by  Thursday. 

23.  When I  call  for  you? 

24.  You  — —  pardon  me,  I  am  sure. 

25.  I not  look  upon  his  like  again. 

Distinguish  between: 

1.  Hugh  will   (shall)   not  see  me. 

2.  I  shall   (will)   not  hear  his  explanation. 

3.  You  will  (shall)  know  my  decision  to-morrow. 

4.  You  will  (shall)  not  be  the  only  one  to  suffer. 

5.  Lloyd  shall  (will)  not  go. 

6.  You  will  (shall)  have  all  you  deserve. 

7.  You  will  (shall)  have  your  choice. 


64  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

8.  He  shall  (will)  do  as  I  wish. 

9.  He  shall  (will)  not  interfere  with  your  plans. 

10.  Do  you  think  I  would  (should)   accept  it? 

11.  What  did  he  say  the  admission  would  (should) 
be? 

12.  We  will  (shall)  return  at  four  o'clock. 

13.  If  he  disobeyed,  he  would  (should)  be  pun- 
ished. 

14.  You  will  (shall)  pay  for  it. 

15.  Will  (shall)  such  things  be  permitted? 

16.  He  shall  (will)  see  strange  sights. 

17.  Shall   (will)   Ruth  go,  too? 

18.  They  shall  (will)  see  what  I  can  do. 

19.  Thou  shalt  (wilt)  not  steal. 

20.  You  would  (should)  go  if  you  could. 

21.  If  you  work,  you  will  (shall)  be  rewarded. 

Shall  and  will  in  Subordinate  Clauses. — Re- 
specting the  use  of  these  auxiliaries  in  subordinate 
clauses,  Mr.  H.  G.  Buehler  says: 

"In  noun  clauses  introduced  by  'that/  expressed 
or  understood,  if  the  noun  clause  and  the  principal 
clause  have  different  subjects,  the  distinction  be- 
tween shall  and  will  is  the  same  as  in  independent 
sentences;"  as — 

My  sister  says  (that)  Dorothy  tvill  be  glad  to  go 
with  us.  (Futurity;  the  same  as,  'Dorothy  will  be 
glad  to  go  with  us/) 

My  sister  says  (that)  Dorothy  shall  not  be  left 
behind.  (Volition;  the  same  as,  'Dorothy  shall  not 
be  left  behind.') 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  65 

In  all  other  dependent  clauses,  shall  is  in  all  per- 
sons the  proper  auxiliary  to  express  simple  futurity ; 
will  in  all  persons  implies  an  exercise  of  will  on  the 
part  of  the  subject  of  the  clause;  as, 

Dorothy  says  (that)  she  shall  (futurity)  be  able 
to  go  with  us. 

She  says  (that)  she  will  (volition)  meet  us  at  the 
corner. 

If  Bessie  will  come  (volition) ,  we  will  try  to  make 
her  visit  pleasant. 

When  He  shall  appear  (futurity)  we  shall  be  like 
Him. 

The  following  sentences  will  serve  to  illustrate 
further  the  rules  given  by  Mr.  Buehler: 

1.  He  declares  that  he  shall  die  if  he  is  not  helped. 

2.  You  say  you  should  like  to  see  him. 

3.  Barnes  says  that  he  will  not  pay  this  bill. 

4.  You  promised  that  you  would  help  me. 

5.  He  said  that  he  should  be  happy  to  meet  your 
friend. 

6.  John  said  that  James  tvoidd  be  fifteen  next 
month. 

7.  I  said  that  I  should  like  to  go  if  I  got  a  chance. 

8.  They  said  they  feared  they  should  miss  the 
train. 

9.  They  thought  it  would  rain. 

10.  Did  he  say  that  he  should  be  glad  to  go? 

11.  Jane  said  that  her  mother  would  try  to  go. 


66  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  XXXIII 

Examine  the  following  sentences,  and  justify  the 

use   Of  SHALL  or  WILL,   SHOULD   OT  WOULD: 

1.  "I  will  not  answer,"  he  said  stubbornly. 

2.  We  should  be  greatly  mistaken  if  we  thought 
so. 

3.  Will  not  our  national  character  be  greatly 
injured?  Shall  we  not  be  classed  with  the  robbers 
and  destroyers  of  mankind? 

4.  But  I  shall  doubtless  find  some  English  per- 
son of  whom  to  make  inquiries. 

5.  "I  am  a  wayfarer,"  the  stranger  said,  "and 
should  like  permission  to  remain  with  you  a  little 
while." 

6.  I  fear  that  we  shall  have  bad  weather. 

7.  I  shall  receive  no  benefit  if  I  do  not  apply  my- 
self. 

8.  I  think  I  shall  stay  at  home  to-night;  so  if 
you  will  keep  quiet,  I  will  tell  you  a  story. 

9.  You  will  be  sorry  if  you  do  not  go,  and  so 
shall  I. 

10.  I  shall  be  fatigued  if  I  walk  to  town. 

11.  You  will  like  her  when  you  meet  her,  and  so 
will  your  brother. 

12.  I  shall  be  disappointed  if  he  does  not  come, 
and  so  will  you  and  your  sister. 

13.  You  shall  have  the  money  next  week. 

14.  Tommy,  you  shall  not  leave  the  room. 

15.  I  know  we  shall  be  sorry. 

16.  I  shall  be  obliged  to  refuse  your  request. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  67 

17.  If  I  do  not  wear  my  overshoes,  I  shall  be  ill. 

18.  We  will  do  whatever  is  fair. 

19.  You  shall  not  have  one  cent. 

20.  We  shall  expect  you  to-morrow. 

21.  I  shall  be  satisfied,  when  I  awake,  with  Thy 
likeness. 

22.  He  will  call  for  me  on  his  way  to  school. 

23.  I  shall  regret  your  absence. 

24.  He  is  resolved  that  Anna  shall  go. 

25.  We  will  not  pay  one  cent. 

26.  We  will  not  permit  this  to  continue. 

27.  If  I  do  not  study  now,  I  shall  later  regret  not 
having  done  so. 

28.  I  will  follow  up  the  quest,  despite  its  hard- 
ships. 

29.  I  will  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all 
summer. 

30.  Shall  you  go  to  Newport  in  July  or  August? 

31.  Will  you  insist  on  this  demand? 

32.  I  should  prefer  to  have  you  go  in  my  place. 

33.  I  should  think  you  would  try  again. 

34.  If  you  should  fail,  how  sorry  I  should  be. 

35.  Were  I  to  fail  again,  I  should  be  discouraged. 

36.  You  will  report  to  your  general  before  twelve 
o'clock. 

37.  He  fears  he  shall  be  late. 

38.  He  fears  you  will  be  late. 

39.  Depend  upon  it,  I  will  be  ready  when  you 
arrive. 

40.  I  shall  be  glad  if  he  will  tell  me  wherein  I 
have  offended  him. 


68  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

ACCURACY  IN  MAKING  COMPARISONS 

When  two  persons,  things,  or  ideas  are  compared, 
the  comparative  form  of  the  adjective  or  of  the 
adverb  should  be  used ;  when  more  than  two,  the  su- 
perlative. Thus:  Of  two  evils,  choose  the  less. 
Now  abideth  faith,  hope,  love,  these  three;  but  the 
greatest  of  these  is  love. 

Rule. — When  a  comparative  with  than  is  used, 
the  thing  compared  must  be  excluded  from  the  rest 
of  a  class  to  which  it  belongs.  This  may  be  done 
by  inserting  the  word  other. 

When  the  superlative  is  used,  the  particular 
term  must  be  included  in  the  class  of  things  with 
which  it  is  compared.  The  word  other  must  then  be 
omitted. 

It  is  clearly  incorrect  to  say  "Texas  is  larger  than 
any  state  in  the  Union,"  because  Texas  is  included 
in  "any  state,"  and  of  course  is  not  larger  than  it- 
self. This  error  is  avoided  by  inserting  other  after 
any.  Thus:  Texas  is  larger  than  any  other  state 
in  the  Union. 

To  say  "Texas  is  the  largest  of  any  state  in  the 
Union"  is  also  incorrect,  because  "any  state"  means 
"any  one  state"  or  "some  states,"  and  the  thought 
intended  to  be  conveyed  is  that  "Texas  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  states  in  the  Union."  The  simplest  way 
of  expressing  the  thought  is  "Texas  is  the  largest 
state  in  the  Union." 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  69 

EXERCISE  XXXIV 

Which  is  preferable? 

1.  The  smallest    (smaller)    of  the  twins  is  the 
most   (more)   active. 

2.  The  oldest  (older)  of  the  four  sons  is  in  college. 

3.  Which  is  the  farthest  (farther)  west,  Helena, 
Salt  Lake  City,  or  Denver? 

4.  Of  the  two  German  poets,  Schiller  and  Goethe, 
the  latter  (last)  is  the  more  (most)  famous. 

5.  Of  Irish  song  writers,  Moore  is  the  greater 
(greatest) . 

Point  out  and  correct  the  errors  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  Our  history  lessons  are  the  easiest  of  any  we 
have. 

2.  California  produces  more  citrus   fruit  than 
any  state  in  the  Union. 

3.  Buenos  Ayres  has  a  larger  population  than 
any  city  south  of  the  equator. 

4.  Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  any  of  the 
Great  Lakes. 

5.  The  Amazon  is  larger  than  any  river  in  the 
world. 

6.  You  may  have  the  black  or  the  spotted  kitten, 
whichever  you  like  best. 

7.  Studying  and  reciting  are  both  interesting, 
but  reciting  is  the  most  interesting. 

8.  This  is  the  most  entertaining  book  of  any  that 
I  have  read. 


70 


ESSENTIALS    OF    ENGLISH 


9.  Which  do  you  like  best,  oranges  or  bananas? 

10.  Stonewall  Jackson  was  more  daring  than  any 
Confederate  general. 

11.  Tennyson  was  the  greatest  of  any  of  the 
Victorian  poets. 

12.  Of  all  other  boys,  Charles  should  be  the  last 
to  complain. 

13.  Of  all  women  orators,  Susan  B.  Anthony  was 
the  greater. 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs  not  Admitting  of  Com- 
parison.— Not  a  few  adjectives  and  adverbs  have 
meanings  that  do  not  vary  in  degree;  as,  entirely, 
dead,  unparalleled.  Such  words  do  not  admit  of 
comparison,  or  of  being  modified  by  most,  more,  too, 
very,  or  so. 

Which  of  the  following  adjectives  and  adverbs 
do  not  admit  of  formal  comparison? 


ill 

universally 

flexible 

late 

invariable 

unprecedented 

square 

unbounded 

invisible 

incessant 

preferable 

productive 

unanimous 

immeasurably 

near 

ambitious 

supreme 

constantly 

unerring 

omnipotent 

inseparable 

parallel 

inaudible 

incessantly 

unique 

absolute 

omniscient 

wooden 

incomparable 

matchless 

paramount 

Professor  E.  H.  Lewis  defends  the  practice  of 
comparing  such  words  as  full,  perfect,  and  round. 
Thus: 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  71 

"It  is  often  said  that  certain  adjectives  like  full, 
perfect,  and  round  are  'incapable  of  comparison/ 
because  they  are  already  superlative  in  meaning. 
It  is  true,  in  one  sense,  that  if  a  pail  is  full,  it  can 
be  no  fuller.  But  no  actual  pail  is  ever  exactly  full ; 
no  circle  ever  drawn  was  perfectly  round;  nothing 
save  God  is  perfect.  The  Bible,  by  the  way,  contains 
the  expression  more  perfect  (Acts  24 :  22 ;  Heb.  9 : 
11).  If  we  were  to  be  theoretically  exact  in  all 
our  speech,  we  could  not  speak  at  all.  In  strictness, 
time  never  'flies/  the  sun  never  'rises,'  nothing  ever 
'happens/ 

"In  common  usage  it  is  'perfectly'  good  English 
and  'perfectly'  good  sense  to  say  full,  fuller,  fullest; 
round,  rounder,  roundest;  perfect,  more  perfect, 
most  perfect,  half-perfect.  We  need  not  go  so  far 
as  to  say  rather  perfect,  though  rather  round  and 
rather  full  might  be  permitted." 

ACCURACY  IN  USING  PREPOSITIONS 

Errors  made  in  the  use  of  prepositions  are  by  no 
means  few.  In  choosing  the  preposition  that  will 
accurately  express  his  meaning,  a  writer  must  rely 
chiefly  on  his  knowledge  of  good  usage.  The  indi- 
cation of  the  correct  use  of  the  more  important 
prepositions  may,  however,  prove  helpful. 

We  should  say: 

1.  Between  two;  among  three  or  more. 

2.  Different  from    (not  different  to,  or  than). 

3.  Accused  of  (not  with)  a,  grave  offense. 


72  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

4.  Greedy  of  (not  for)  popularity. 

5.  Acceptable  to    (not  with)    the  persons  con- 
cerned. 

6.  Need  of  (not  for)  more  money. 

7.  Angry  a£  a  thing  or  an  act. 

8.  Angry  tvith  a  person. 

9.  Made  of  (not  with)  the  best  material. 

10.  Frown  at  a  person,  but  on  conduct. 

11.  One  is  careless  of  (not  with)  one's  valuables. 

12.  Descended  from  (not  o/)  a  good  family. 

13.  Destined  to   (not  for)   high  service. 

14.  Antipathy  to  (not  /or)  a  person. 

15.  Agree  with  a  person;  to  a  proposal. 

16.  Confide  in   (meaning  trust  in). 

17.  Confide  to  (meaning  hit  rust  something  to  an- 
other) . 

18.  Averse  to  (rarely  front). 

19.  Yoked  with   (not  to). 

20.  Sympathize  with   (not  for), 

21.  Concede  to  (not  /r/Y//)  a  proposal. 

22.  Concur  with  a  person;  in  what  is  said. 

23.  Dissent  from  (not  tvith)  an  opinion. 

24.  Persons  are  reconciled  to  others  or  to  God; 
practice  is  reconciled  with  theory. 

25.  Seized  by  a  policeman;  with  some  disease. 

26.  Remonstrate  /r/Y//  a  person;  against  conduct 
or  procedure. 

27.  Accompanied     by     a     person;     with     noble 
thoughts. 

28.  Killed  by  a  weapon;  uri£A  dissipation. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  73 

29.  Overwhelmed  by  the  enemy;  with  grief. 

30.  Attend  to  our  duties;  upon  our  masters. 

31.  Similar  things  or  ideas  are  compared  with 
each  other;  unlike  things  (analogously)  to  each 
other. 

32.  Vexed  with  a  person;  at  conduct. 

33.  Correspond  to  or  with  a  thing;  with  a  person. 

34.  Witness  for  a  person;  to  sl  principle  or  truth. 

35.  Emulous  of  (not  for)  honors. 

36.  Disappointed  in  what  we  have;  of  what  we 
expected,  but  could  not  get. 

EXERCISE  XXXV 

Write  sentences  illustrating  the  difference  be- 
tiveen  — 

In  and  into;  beside  and  besides;  wait  for  and  wait 
on;  consist  of  and  consist  in;  laugh  at  and  laugh 
with;  part  from  and  part  with;  taste  of  and  taste 
for;  assimilated  by  and  assimilated  to;  smile  at  and 
smile  on;  frown  at  and  frown  on;  accompanied  by 
and  accompanied  with;  among  and  between;  touch  at 
and  touch  upon;  succeed  to  and  succeed  in;  bear  with 
and  bear  up;  trespass  on  and  trespass  against;  re- 
sponsible for  and  responsible  to;  embark  on  and 
embark  in;  eager  to  and  eager  for;  perish  by  and 
perish  with. 

EXERCISE  XXXVI 

The  fifty  phrases  given  below  are  prepositional 
in  form,  but  have  the  force  of  adverbs,  and  are 
treated  as  adverbs. 


74  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Use  each  in  a  sentence: 

Above  all,  all  in  all,  at  a  loss,  at  all  events,  at  any 
rate,  at  best,  at  heart,  at  fault,  at  hand,  at  most, 
at  one,  at  random,  at  that,  at  the  most,  at  times,  by- 
heart,  by  no  means,  by  the  bye,  for  a  while,  for  all 
that,  for  instance,  for  example,  for  lost,  for  that  mat- 
ter, for  the  most  part,  for  the  present,  for  the  time, 
from  time  to  time,  in  a  word,  in  brief,  in  general,  in 
fact,  in  full,  in  other  words,  in  part,  in  particular,  in 
short,  in  the  main,  in  vain,  in  view,  more  and  more, 
no  doubt,  none  the  less,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  one 
hand,  on  the  other  hand,  on  the  whole,  once  for  all, 
over  and  above,  under  the  circumstances. 

Preposition  as  the  Final  Word  of  a  Sentence. 
— "Some  authorities  object  to  the  use  of  a  preposi- 
tion as  the  final  word  of  a  sentence,  but  such  usage 
is  in  accord  with  the  genius  of  all  the  Teutonic  lan- 
guages."— Standard  Dictionary. 

The  nicest  judgment,  however,  is  necessary  to  de- 
termine whether  a  sentence  would  be  improved  or 
impaired  by  placing  the  preposition  at  the  close 
of  the  sentence.  Seldom,  if  ever,  should  such  phrases 
as,  at  least,  at  any  rate,  at  all  events,  in  short,  in 
truth,  in  fact,  to  be  sure,  etc.,  be  placed  at  the  close 
of  a  sentence. 

"Off"  Followed  by  "Of." — Never  use  the  prepo- 
sition of  after  the  preposition  off.  No  mistake  is 
more  common  than  off  of.  The  pupil  should  accustom 
himself  to  saying:  Off  the  lawn,  off  the  desk,  off  the 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  75 

pier,  off  the  bush,  off  the  vines,  off  the  roof,  off 
the  horse,  off  the  first  base,  etc. 

"Than." — Than  is  used  as  a  preposition  in  only 
one  phrase:  "than  whom;"  as,  Horace  Mann,  than 
whom  no  man  of  his  time  was  a  greater  educator, 
was  a  native  of  Massachusetts. 

"Like." — Like  is  never  a  conjunction,  and  should 
not  be  used  to  introduce  a  clause,  as  in  the  sentence, 
"Do  like  your  father  does,"  for  "Do  as  your  father 
does."  Like  properly  introduces  a  phrase;  as,  He 
looks  like  his  father;  talks  like  a  parrot;  works  like 
a  beaver;  etc. 

EXERCISE  XXXVII 

Use  in  sentences  each  of  the  following  words  (1) 
as  a  preposition;  (2)  as  an  adverb: 


in 

off 

below 

within 

up 

down 

behind 

beneath 

by 

above 

around 

without 

Use  each  of  the  following,  (1)  as  a  preposition; 
(2)  as  a  conjunctive  adverb: 

Since,  before,  after,  till,  until. 

Phrasal  Prepositions. — Each  of  the  following 
expressions  is  treated  as  a  preposition.  They  are 
called  phrasal  prepositions: 

as  for  as  to 

apart  from  because  of 

as  regards  by  means  of 

according  to  by  reason  of 


76  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

by  way  of  out  of 

for  the  sake  of  in  opposition  to 

in  accordance  with  in  place  of 

in  addition  to  in  preference  to 

in  case  of  in  spite  of 

in  compliance  with  instead  of 

in  consequence  of  on  account  of 

in  front  of  'with  regard  to 

Prepositions  Derived  from  Verbs. — Though  de- 
rived from  verbs,  the  following  words,  when  not 
following  auxiliary  verbs,  are  prepositions: 


barring 

excepting 

regarding 

concerning 

pending 

respecting 

during 

notwithstanding 

touching 

ADJECTIVE  OR  ADVERB 

Verbs,  like  adjectives  and  adverbs,  are  modified, 
if  modified  at  all,  by  adverbs.  But  there  are  cer- 
tain verbs  that,  like  the  verb  to  be,  may  have  ad- 
jectives for  their  complements.  The  more  common 
of  these  verbs  are  look,  feel,  seem,  appear,  taste, 
smell,  grow,  become,  sound,  turn,  and  so  on.  It  is 
proper,  as  a  rule,  to  use  an  adjective  after  any  one 
of  these  verbs,  whenever  some  form  of  the  verb 
to  be  or  to  seem  or  to  become  may  be  substituted 
for  the  verb;  an  adverb  when  no  such  substitution 
can  be  made.  Thus:  He  looked  strong.  He  spoke 
strongly.  Or,  The  velvet  feels  smooth.  She  writes 
smoothly. 

In  the  sentence,  "He  turned  pale,"  pale  does  not 
tell  how  he  turned,  but  how  he  became;  in  other 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  77 

words,  he  became  pale.  Hence  pale  is  here  an  ad- 
jective. But  in  the  sentence,  "He  turned  quickly," 
quickly  tells  how  he  did  the  act  expressed  by  the 
verb  turn.  Hence  quickly  is  an  adverb.  When  you 
say,  "The  apple  tastes  sweet/'  you  do  not  mean  that 
the  apple  performs  an  act  denoted  by  the  verb 
tastes,  but  that  the  apple  is  sweet  to  your  sense  of 
taste.  Sweet  is  therefore  an  adjective.  But  when 
you  say,  "The  birds  sing  sweetly,"  you  mean  to  tell 
by  the  word  sweetly  how  the  birds  perform  the  act 
of  singing.    Sweetly  is  therefore  an  adverb. 

EXERCISE  XXXVIII 
Which  is  correct?     Why? 

1.  How  sweet  (sweetly)  these  violets  smell! 

2.  At  once  his  eye  grew  wild   (wildly). 

3.  The  wind  blows  furious   (furiously). 

4.  The  servant  looked  weary  (wearily). 

5.  The  day  dawned  fair    (fairly). 

6.  He  spoke  distinctly    (distinct). 

7.  Her  voice  grew  more  faintly  (fainter). 

8.  He  looks  stronger   (more  strongly)  than  his 
brother. 

9.  You  are  exceeding   (exceedingly)  thoughtful. 

10.  He  felt  awkwardly   (awkward)   in  the  pres- 
ence of  ladies. 

11.  The  dead  soldier  looked  calm  (calmly). 

12.  You  should  value  your  privileges  higher  (more 
highly) . 

13.  She  seems  amiably  (amiable)  enough. 


78  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

14.  The  beans  boiled  soft   (softly). 

15.  She  sings  good  (well). 

16.  The  pudding  looks  good  (tvell). 

17.  The  phaeton  rides  easy  (easily). 

18.  Experience  makes  us  cautiously    (cautious). 

19.  We  should  not  let  our  lights  grow  dim  (dimly) . 

20.  Deal  gentle   (gently)  with  the  erring. 

21.  He  always  acts  independently  (independent). 

22.  The  weather  turned  coldly    (cold). 

23.  One  can  scarce  (scarcely)  help  smiling  at  his 
grotesque  movements. 

24.  These  shoes  go  on  easy  (easily). 

25.  These  shoes  feel  easy    (easily). 

26.  They  feel  bad  (badly)  over  their  defeat. 

27.  He  speaks  loud  (loudly)  enough. 

28.  He  writes  so  ill  (illy)  that  one  can  scarcely 
(scarce)  read  his  writing. 

29.  Previous  (previously)  to  his  election  to  pub- 
lic office,  he  practiced  medicine. 

EXERCISE  XXXIX 

Distinguish  between — 

1.  The  applicant  appeared  promptly   (prompt). 

2.  They  arrived  safe   (safely). 

3.  The  deacon  looks  well   (good). 

4.  I  found  the  way  easy  (easily). 

5.  The  teacher  took  great  pains  to  explain    (in 
explaining)   everything. 

6.  Do  you  think  I  would ■  (should)  accept  it? 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  79 

7.  She  was  the  greatest  poet   (poetess)   of  her 
day. 

8.  He   taught    (has   taught)    there   for   twenty 
years. 

9.  She  sings  as  well  as   (as  well  as  she)  plays. 

10.  I  remember  a  story  of  the  judge  (judge's) 
that  may  interest  you. 

11.  William  (William's)  and  Henry's  books. 

12.  Few  (a  few)  are  qualified  to  serve. 

13.  He  lived  (had  lived)  on  the  lake  front  thirty 
years. 

14.  Much  depends  on  the  teacher's  (teacher)  crit- 
icizing our  essays. 

MISTAKES  IN  THE  USE  OF  CORRELATIVE 
CONJUNCTIONS 

Definition. — Correlative  conjunctions  are  con- 
junctions used  in  pairs;  such  as  both — and,  either 
— or,  neither — nor,  whether — or,  not  only — but  also. 

When  using  correlatives,  we  must  see  to  it  that 
each  of  the  correlated  words  is  so  placed  as  to  in- 
dicate clearly  what  ideas  the  correlatives  unite  in 
thought.  This  rule  is  violated  in  "He -is  neither 
inclined  to  favor  protection  nor  absolute  free 
trade."  By  placing  the  first  term  of  the  correlative 
before  the  verb  inclined  the  reader  is  led  to  expect 
a  corresponding  verb  in  the  second  part  of  the  sen- 
tence. In  fact,  however,  the  two  connected  expres- 
sions are  protection  and  absolute  free  trade.  The 
intended  meaning  is  clearly  indicated  by  putting 


80  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

neither  before  protection;  thus,  "He  is  inclined  to 
favor  neither  protection  nor  absolute  free  trade." 
As  a  rule,  each  member  of  the  correlative  should  be 
followed  by  same  part  of  speech. 

EXERCISE  XL 

Point  out  and  correct  the  errors  of  position  in — 

1.  She  was  neither  qualified  by  early  training  nor 
by  later  associations  to  govern  a  nation. 

2.  You  are  not  only  mistaken  in  your  inferences, 
but  also  in  your  facts. 

3.  He  neither  answered  my  letter  nor  my  post- 
card. 

4.  Every  written  exercise  is  liable  to  criticism 
both  in  regard  to  its  style  and  to  its  thought. 

5.  We  are  neither  acquainted  with  the  mayor  nor 
his  advisers. 

6.  The  night  neither  brought  food  nor  shelter  to 
the  lonely  traveler. 

7.  He  was  not  only  prompted  by  inclination  nor 
by  a  sense  of  duty. 

8.  Tom's  success  is  neither  the  result  of  cleverness 
nor  of  studiousness. 

OMITTED  CONJUNCTIONS 

Professor  Buehler  writes:  "Careless  writers 
sometimes  omit  conjunctions  that  are  necessary 
either  to  the  grammar  or  to  the  sense.  A  common 
form  of  this  fault  is  illustrated  in  This  is  as  good 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  81 

if  not  better  than  that' — a  sentence  in  which  'as' 
is  omitted  after  'as  good.'  The  best  way  to  correct 
the  sentence  is  to  recast  it,  thus:  This  is  as  good 
as  that,  if  not  better/  " 

EXERCISE  XLI 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Though  not  so  old,  Charlie  is  taller  than  Willie. 

2.  The  President  is  as  young,  if  not  younger  than 
the  Emperor  William. 

3.  Redwood  is  not  so  hard,  but  more  durable  than 
white  pine. 

4.  Jones  is  older,  but  not  so  gray  as  Brown. 

OTHER  COMMON  ERRORS 

Most,  Almost. — Most  is  often  used  where  almost 
is  the  proper  word.  Almost  should  be  used  when- 
ever nearly  can  be  substituted  for  it.  Use  most 
to  express  degree  of  quantity,  number,  or  quality. 
Thus:  "The  poor  cripple's  money  is  almost  (not 
most)  gone.  Almost  (not  most)  every  one  contrib- 
uted something  to  the  undertaking. 

Some,  Something,  Somewhat. — Careless  writers 
often  forget  that  some  is  an  adjective,  something 
a  noun,  and  somewhat  an  adverb  of  degree.  The 
sentence,  "The  patient  is  some  better  this  morning" 
is  a  vulgarism  as  well  as  a  solecism.  To  say,  "He 
looks  something  like  his  father,"  is  a  gross  blunder. 
In  both  sentences  someivhat  is  the  proper  word. 


82  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Real,  Really. — Real  is  an  adjective,  and  should 
not  be  made  to  do  duty  for  very,  extremely,  or  really. 
Such  locutions  as  real  sick,  real  healthy,  real  hand- 
some, and  so  forth,  are  solecisms.  Real  is  properly 
used  before  a  noun;  as,  This  is  a  real  diamond. 

Such,  So. — The  adjective  such  is  often  wrongly 
used  for  the  adverb  so,  when  the  idea  of  degree 
is  to  be  expressed;  as  in  the  sentence,  "I  never 
before  heard  such  an  eloquent  speaker."  The  cor- 
rect form  is,  "I  never  before  heard  so  eloquent  a 
speaker."  "I  never  before  saw  such  a  tall  man" 
is  correct  if  I  mean  that  I  never  before  saw  a  tall 
man  of  this  peculiar  kind.  But  if  I  mean  that  this 
man  is  the  tallest  I  ever  saw,  I  should  say,  "I  never 
before  saw  so  tall  a  man." 

Double  Negatives. — In  modern  English  two  neg- 
atives are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative.  To  say  "I 
don't  know  nothing  about  the  subject"  is  equiva- 
lent to  "I  know  something  about  the  subject."  An- 
other inadmissible  double  negative  is,  "John  can  not 
pass  the  examination,  I  don't  think."  While  such 
double  negatives  as  "I  didn't  eat  nothing,"  "Neither 
you  nor  nobody  else,"  and  so  on,  are  solecisms,  there 
is  a  kind  of  double  negative  supported  by  good  usage ; 
as,  Such  mistakes  are  not  infrequent.  Not  a  few 
were  unable  to  gain  admission. 

That,  But  What,  But  That.— Dr.  R.  H.  Bell 
says :  "But  that  and  but  what  used  instead  of  that  is 
certainly  poor  taste,  to  say  nothing  more." 

Say  "There  is  no  doubt  that  (not  but  ivhat)  he 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  83 

will  succeed."  "I'll  not  deny  that  (not  but  that)  you 
are  right." 

Had  or  Hadn't  before  Ought. — Never  use  had 
or  hadn't  before  ought.  Had  ought  and  hadn't 
ought  are  vulgarisms.  "He  hadn't  ought  to  leave" 
is  intended  to  express  the  thought,  "He  ought  not 
to  leave." 

Quite. — Quite  is  an  adverb;  it  can  not  therefore 
modify  a  noun.  We  should  say  "a  large  number," 
"a  larger  quantity,"  not  quite  a  number,"  etc. 

Bad,  Severe. — Bad  is  the  opposite  of  good,  and 
is  not  synonymous  with  severe.  Say  "I  have  a  se- 
vere (not  bad)  cold." 

Very  Much. — Very  badly  means  in  an  evil  man- 
ner, hence  should  not  be  used  instead  of  very  much. 
Say  "I  am  very  much  (not  very  badly)  in  need  of 
help." 

Every,  Entire. — Every  means  each  one  of  sev- 
eral. It  is  not  a  synonym  of  entire  or  all.  Say  "We 
have  entire  (not  every)  confidence  in  our  em- 
ployees." 

PRACTICE  IN  DETECTING  SOLECISMS 

EXERCISE  XLII. 

Point  out  and  correct  all  errors  of  syntax  in  the 
folloiving  sentences: 

1.  The  dice  is  loaded. 

2.  The  formation  of  these  rocks  are  very  curious. 

3.  Each  of  these  states  are  a  part  of  the  nation. 


84  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

4.  Edible    fungi    is    hard   to    distinguish    from 
poisonous. 

5.  The  phenomena  is  very  unusual. 

6.  The  data  is  sufficient. 

7.  Those  plants  belong  to  different  genuses. 

8.  How  different  the  climate  is  to  what  we  ex- 
pected. 

9.  Can  I  consult  your  lexicon? 

10.  Let  each  of  them  depend  on  their  own  effort. 

11.  It  was  Raleigh's  intention  to  have  dedicated 
his  book  to  Lord  Bacon. 

12.  He  was  an  Irishman  who,  like  Priestly,  the 
Republicans  delighted  to  honor. 

13.  How  will  I  know  who  to  look  to? 

14.  I  meant  to  have  given  the  class  several  of 
these  kind  of  questions. 

15.  Which  is  the  cheapest  route,  the  central  or 
the  southern? 

16.  It  doesn't  really  deceive  the  reader  any  more 
than  "Arabian  Nights"  or  "Gulliver's  Travels"  do. 

17.  Who  do  you  think  I   saw  standing  on  the 
bridge  ? 

18.  Any  burglar,  be  he  whom  he  may,  should  be 
hung. 

19.  He  found  that  the  river  had  raised  several 
inches. 

20.  More  than  one  failure  has  resulted  from  care- 
lessness. 

21.  Nothing  but  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight 
some  people. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  85 

22.  He  laid  down  in  the  shade  where  we  formerly- 
had  set. 

23.  One  of  the  most  trying  things  that  is  known 
to  life,  is  to  suffer  alone  and  unjustly. 

24.  Every  one  of  the  boys  tell  the  same  story. 

25.  Us  boys  may  soon  organize  a  debating  club. 

26.  How  does  my  coat  set  across  the  shoulders? 

27.  The  old  method  is  quite  different  than  the 
cne  now  in  use. 

28.  I  will  confide  the  secret  to  my  brother. 

29.  He  may  return  next  week,  but  we  can  not 
wait  on  him. 

30.  It  makes  no  difference  whom  you  thought  it 
was. 

31.  What  kind  of  an  adjective  did  you  say  some 
was? 

32.  I  was  born  an  American,  I  live  an  American, 
I  will  die  an  American. 

33.  Why  don't  Amelia  speak  plainly? 

34.  Are  you  most  ready? 

35.  We  don't  hardly  expect  them  this  week. 

36:  It  is  very  pleasant  to  travel  in  style  like  the 
Lord  High  Chancellor  does. 

37.  Happiness  is  not  complete  except  it  is  shared 
with  another. 

38.  Can  I  be  excused  from  reciting  this  morning? 

39.  As  Mark  was  feeling  bad,  the  teacher  ex- 
cused him  from  the  recitation. 

40.  He  called  for  Estelle  and  I. 

41.  It  was  us  whom  you  saw. 


86  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

42.  There   should   be   no   trouble   between   them 
and  I. 

43.  He  is  a  man  whom  I  know  is  honest. 

44.  They  saw  that  it  was  her. 

45.  Don't  all  speak  at  once,  but  each  in  their  turn. 

46.  Everybody  in  the  waiting  room  were  amusing 
themselves  as  well  as  they  could. 

47.  Neither  Charles  or  Carl  found  themselves  able 
to  solve  the  problem. 

48.  The  general  with  all  his  men  were  taken  by 
the  enemy. 

49.  Nothing  but  confectionery  and  stationery  are 
sold  here. 

50.  Are  either  of  you  acquainted  with  the  princi- 
pal or  his  assistant? 

51.  Night  air,  together  with   draughts,   are   the 
bugbear  of  fearful  patients. 

52.  Who  did  you  take  him  to  be? 

53.  I  felt  sure  that  the  culprit  was  him. 

54.  He  lives  as  far,  if  not  farther,  from  the  city 
as  you  do. 

55.  I  mean  Noah  Webster,  he  who  compiled  the 
dictionary. 

56.  The   Prime   Minister,   with   the    Lord   Chief 
Justice,  were  admitted  to  the  King's  presence. 

57.  You  can  take  any  book  that  you  find  laying 
on  the  table. 

58.  Was  it  a  lawyer  or  a  preacher's  library  that 
you  bought? 

59.  Candidates  are  liberal  with  promises  before 
election. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  87 

60.  The  judge   said   that  he  could   not  entirely 
acquit  the  defendant  from  blame. 

61.  I  wish  it  was  not  so  far  to  my  office. 

62.  Will  you  be  likely  to  meet  the  postman? 

63.  St.  Augustine  is  older  than  any  town  in  North 
America. 

64.  We  can  not  but  help  being  deeply  impressed. 

65.  The  old  swimming  hole — I  will  not  soon  for- 
get it. 

66.  There  is  very  little  room  here  for  men  like 
you  and  I. 

67.  I  would  be  very  much  obliged  to  you  for  your 
autograph. 

68.  I  fully  expected  to  have  executed  your  orders, 
but  circumstances  forbade. 

69.  The  man  whom  they  thought  was  the  clergy- 
man, proved  to  be  a  layman. 

70.  He  had  just  laid  down  when  you  called. 

71.  I  can  not  imagine  it  to  be  he. 

72.  Who  can  you  recommend  for  the  position? 

73.  I  think  you  will  find  that  it  was  him  who 
wrote  the  article. 

74.  How  should  you  like  to  be  me? 

75.  I  hardly  think  it  was  him  to  whom  Mr.  Stone 
referred. 

76.  She  lay  the  baby  on  the  bed  and  then  ran  for 
a  physician. 

77.  They  had  no  thought  of  its  being  us. 

78.  What  kind  of  a  bird  is  it? 

79.  We  woke  at  five  o'clock. 


88  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

80.  I  wrang  the  clothes  as  dry  as  I  could. 

81.  Did  you  wake  of  your  own  accord,  or  did  you 
have  some  one  else  awake  you? 

82.  He  has  set  up  night  after  night  to  study. 

83.  Her  cries  for  help  have  been  wringing  in 
my  ears  all  day. 

84.  You  caught  cold  by  laying  on  the  grass  while 
John  was  sitting  out  the  shrubs. 

85.  Every  one  present,  except  he,  guessed  why. 

86.  He  earnestly  protested  against  them  embark- 
ing in  the  enterprise. 

87.  I  meant,  when  I  first  came,  to  have  bought 
all  Paris. 

88.  If  I  had  not  rode  part  of  the  way,  I  never 
would  have  been  there  in  time. 

89.  It  is  just  as  good,  if  not  better,  than  any 
other  brand  in  the  market. 

90.  I  have  no  doubt  but  what  he  meant  to  have 
told  you  the  facts  long  ago. 

91.  He  would  allow  no  one  to  open  their  eyes  while 
at  prayers,  and  would  ofttimes  raise  up  and  look 
around  to  see  if  all  were  praying. 

92.  I  neither  attempted  to  conceal  from  myself 
nor  from  him  that  the  project  would  be  a  danger- 
ous one.  • 

93.  Charlemagne  patronized  not  only  learned  men, 
but  also  established  educational  institutions. 

94.  "When  will  you  be  ready  for  business  ?"  asked 
the  reporter. 

95.  If  it  don't  come  before  six,  I  shall  have  to 
go  for  it  myself. 


APPLIED     GRAMMAR  89 

96.  Which   structure   is   best,   the   loose   or   the 
periodic  ? 

97.  Mazzini  did  more  for  the  unity  of  Italy  than 
any  living  man. 

98.  He  once  said  to  his  mother,  "I  believe  I  will 
die  young." 

99.  In  Europe  no  one  marries  without  they  have 
a  certain  amount  of  property. 

100.  Beelzebub,    than    who,    Satan    except,    none 
higher  sat. 


PART  TWO 


Punctuation 

Punctuation  is  an  indispensable  help  in  making 
clear,  and  therefore  easy  to  read,  what  one  writes. 
It  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  discourse  into  sen- 
tences and  shorter  sections  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
make  clear  to  the  eye  their  grammatical  relations. 
Punctuation  is  just  as  essential  to  the  structure  and 
meaning  of  sentences  as  are  the  choosing  and  ar- 
ranging of  words.  "Every  mark  of  punctuation, 
if  rightly  used,"  says  Professor  Genung,  "has  its 
definite  office  to  fulfil,  and  depends  on  some  deter- 
minate principle  of  connection  and  relation." 

Though  no  two  writers  punctuate  precisely  alike, 
yet  the  important  rules  for  using  the  period,  the 
comma,  the  colon,  and  so  on,  are  fully  established 
in  the  practice  of  reputable  writers.  Rules  and  di- 
rections can  only  facilitate  the  process  of  mastering 
the  art.  One  is  not  a  master  of  the  art  until  one 
punctuates  correctly  from  sheer  habit — automatic- 
ally. A  master  punctuates  without  thinking  of  the 
rules,  for  he  is  himself  the  rules — and  vastly  more — 
incarnate.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  patient  observation 
and  persistent  practice  are  the  ladder  by  which  we 
rise  to  the  plane  of  mastery. 

The  purpose  of  using  capital  and  italic  letters  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  punctuating.    Hence 

(90) 


PUNCTUATION  91 

the  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals  are  here  included 
under  punctuation. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS 

The  following  are  the  essential  rules  governing 
the  use  of  capital  letters : 

Begin  with  a  capital  letter — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  phrase  or  clause  sepa- 
rately numbered. 

4.  The  first  word  of  every  example,  question, 
precept,  or  direct  quotation,  which,  in  effect,  is  a 
sentence  within  a  sentence. 

5.  A  proper  noun. 

6.  A  word  derived  from  a  proper  noun  and  an. 
abbreviation  of  a  proper  noun. 

Note. — Some  words  derived  from  proper  nouns,  have,  by  long 
usage,  lost  all  reference  to  their  origin,  and  hence  are  written 
with  small  initial  letters;  as,  simony,  currant,  artesian,  laconic, 
milliner,  solecism,  etc. 

7.  A  common  noun  when  joined  to  a  proper  noun 
to  form  a  compound  name. 

Note. — By  some  authorities  geographical  names  are  made  an 
exception  to  this  rule;   as,  the  Hudson  river. 

8.  A  title  of  honor  or  of  office  when  used  with 
a  proper  name  or  when  referring  to  a  particular 
person. 

9.  Names  of  the  Deity,  and,  usually,  personal 
pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity. 


92  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

10.  Names  of  the  Bible  and  of  its  books. 

11.  Names  of  religious  denominations,  of  political 
parties,  and  of  all  other  organized  bodies. 

12.  Names  of  the  months,  and  of  the  days  of  the 
week. 

13.  Names  of  important  historical  events  and 
epochs. 

14.  The  first  word  and  all  important  words  in 
the  titles  of  books  and  of  all  other  forms  of  dis- 
course. 

15.  Each  of  the  words  north,  east,  south,  west, 
when  it  denotes  a  part  of  a  country,  but  not  when  it 
denotes  direction. 

16.  A  noun  "so  strongly  personified  as  to  produce 
in  the  mind  a  distinct  image  of  a  person." 

17.  Words  denoting  family  relations,  such  as 
father,  mother,  uncle,  and  so  on,  when  used  with 
the  proper  names  of  the  persons,  or  when  used  with- 
out a  possessive  noun  or  pronoun. 

18.  The  word  fathers  when  it  denotes  sages  or 
ancient  Christian  writers. 

To  these  rules  must  be  added — 

19.  The  words  I  and  0  are  always  written  as 
capitals. 

20.  "Common  nouns  and  adjectives  often  begin 
with  capital  letters  when  they  designate  the  topics 
or  main  points  of  definitions  or  similar  statements. 
Such  capitals  are  called  emphatic  (or  topical)  capi- 
tals." 


PUNCTUATION  93 

Often  a  Matter  of  Taste. — All  who  have  had 
considerable  experience  in  writing  know  that  there 
are  many  constructions  where  the  use  or  non-use  of 
capitals  is  solely  a  matter  of  taste. 

The  tendency  to  use  italics  sparingly  is  becoming 
more  and  more  marked.  Inexperienced  writers  are 
prone  to  capitalize  and  italicize  too  much. 

EXERCISE  I 

Justify  the  use  of  the  capitals  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  Caesar  cried,  "Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  sink." 

2.  The  Prince  of  Wales  will  succeed  King  Ed- 
ward upon  the  throne  of  England. 

3.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Reformation  in 
France." 

4.  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word 
was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God.    John  1:1. 

5.  His  name  shall  be  called  Wonderful,  Counsel- 
lor, The  mighty  God,  The  everlasting  Father,  The 
Prince  of  Peace.    Isa.  9 :  6. 

6.  St.  Edmund  of  Canterbury  was  right  when  he 
said  to  some  one,  "Work  as  though  you  would  live 
forever;  live  as  though  you  would  die  to-day." 

7.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  would  walk  across  Milan 
to  change  a  single  tint  or  the  slightest  detail  in  his 
famous  picture  of  "The  Last  Supper." 

8.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Simpson  request  the  pleasure  of 
Mr.  Wheeler's  company  at  dinner  on  Wednesday, 


94  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

June  twenty-third,  at  seven  o'clock.     To  meet  Mr. 
James  Larkin. 

23  Lear  Street,  June  nineteenth. 
9.  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or   Flattery   soothe   the   dull   cold   ear   of 
Death? 

10.  President  Benjamin  Harrison  was  a  member 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  of  Indianapolis. 
In  politics  Mr.  Harrison  was  a  Republican.  He  was 
an  ardent  supporter  of  democratic  institutions. 

11.  Let  me  repeat  it:  Devote  yourself  to  the  good 
of  humanity. 

12.  This  watch  is  a  present  from  Uncle  Edwin. 

13.  The  Breeze  came  whispering  to  our  ear. 

14.  Charcoal. 

a.  Tell  what  it  is. 

b.  Describe  the  manufacture  of  charcoal. 

c.  Chief  uses. 

ITALICS 

1.  A  word  belonging  to  a  foreign  language  should 
be  italicized  when  printed  in  English ;  as,  Un  cheval 
is  the  French  for  the  English  a  horse. 

2.  When  in  written  thought  a  word  is  referred 
to  as  a  word,  it  should  be  printed  in  italics  or  put 
within  marks  of  quotation. 

a.  In  this  book  such  words  are  italicized. 


PUNCTUATION  95 

3.  Words  are  sometimes  italicized  to  render  them 
emphatic;  as — 

It  is  this  soul  of  words  that  gives  them  creative 
force. — R.  H.  Bell. 

b.  The  use  of  italics  for  emphasis  is  now  much 
less  common  than  formerly. 

THE  PERIOD 

The  period,  as  the  etymology  of  the  word  im- 
plies, indicates  that  the  circuit  of  the  thought  is 
complete.  Its  chief  use,  accordingly,  is  to  mark  the 
end  of  sentences. 

1.  Every  declarative  and  every  imperative  sentence 
is  followed  by  a  period,  as  — 

Truth  is  stranger  than  fiction. 
Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 

2.  An  abbreviation  is  followed  by  a  period  unless 
an  apostrophe  marks  the  omission  of  the  letters ;  as — 

The  Hon.  Wm.  E.  Gladstone  would  sometimes  ad- 
dress the  House  of  Commons  at  2  A.  M. 

a.  When  shortened  forms  of  proper  names  or  of 
other  nouns  become  current,  they  no  longer  require 
a  period.  Some  of  these  contractions  are  Tom,  Ben, 
Will,  Sue,  bus  (omnibus),  cab,  (cabriolet). 

b.  Titles  may  be  abbreviated  only  when  they  are 
joined  with  proper  names. 

c.  The  name  of  a  State  may  be  abbreviated  when 
standing  with  the  name  of  a  town  or  county,  but 
not  when  standing  alone. 

7 


96  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

d.  The  name  of  a  month  may  be  abbreviated  when 
used  with  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  year,  but 
not  otherwise. 

e.  The  words  morning,  noon,  and  afternoon  are 
expressed  by  A.  M.  or  a.  m.,  M.  or  m.,  P.  M.  or  p.  m., 
respectively,  only  when  the  hour  is  given. 

f.  The  use  of  &  is  permissible  in  the  names  of 
firms  only. 

.  g.  Words,  not  figures,  should  be  used  to  express 
small  numbers,  excepting  in  tables,  statistics,  num- 
bering of  pages,  lines,  examples,  dates,  and  the  like. 
Do  not  begin  a  sentence  with  a  figure. 

3.  The  title  of  a  book,  of  a  chapter,  or  of  any  other 
writing  is,  as  a  rule,  followed  by  a  period. 

h.  Publishers  of  fine  books  now  often  disregard 
this  rule. 

4.  A  subhead,  an  address,  or  a  signature  is  followed 
by  a  period. 

5.  Every  figure,  letter,  or  word  used  to  number  or 
designate  a  member  of  a  series  is  followed  by  a  pe- 
riod. The  numbering  of  these  rules  illustrates  this 
requirement. 

i.  The  former  custom  of  putting  a  period  after 
the  number  of  a  page  or  of  a  line  is  no  longer  ob- 
served. 

j.  A  letter  or  figure  enclosed  by  curves  and  used 
to  designate  a  member  of  a  series,  is  not  followed  by 
a  period. 

6.  A  Roman  numeral  is  generally — but  by  no 
means  always — followed  by  a  period. 


PUNCTUATION  97 

THE  INTERROGATION  POINT 

1.  An  interrogation  point  is  placed  after  a  sentence 
used  to  express  a  direct  question ;  as  — 

Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin? 

a.  An  interrogation  point  should  not  be  placed 
after  an  indirect  question ;  e.  g. — 

He  asked  me  how  I  liked  Mr.  B's  lecture. 

2.  An  interrogation  point  is  placed  within  a  sen- 
tence, when  needed  to  mark  the  close  of  an  inter- 
rogative clause ;  as  — 

"My  father!  must  I  stay?"  shouted  he.  (Or) 
The  question,  "Why  has  the  bank  closed  its  doors?" 
must  be  definitely  answered. 

3.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  closely 
related  questions  each  of  which,  except  the  first,  be- 
ing usually  elliptical,  an  interrogation  point  follows 
each  question ;  as — 

Where  be  your  gibes  now?  your  gambols?  your 
songs?  your  flashes  of  merriment  that  were  wont 
to  set  the  table  on  a  roar? — Shakespeare. 

b.  In  practice  even  the  best  writers  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  application  of  rule  3.  Some  of  them  place 
a  semicolon  after  each  question  except  the  last. 

c.  If,  however,  a  question  is  not  complete  until  the 
end  of  the  sentence  has  been  reached,  an  interroga- 
tion point  should  be  inserted  at  the  close  of  the 
sentence  only;  as,  Which  was  the  more  ancient, 
Nineveh  or  Babylon? 


98  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

4.  In  order  to  express  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
an  idea,  an  interrogation  point  enclosed  by  curves 
may  be  placed  after  the  word  or  words  expressing 
such  idea ;  as  — 

It  was  in  1328  (?)  that  Geoffrey  Chaucer  first 
saw  the  light. 

d.  The  enclosed  interrogation  point  sometimes 
tinges  the  doubt  with  irony;  as,  Our  honorable  (?) 
Representative  in  Congress  is  now  enjoying  the  com- 
forts of  a  Federal  prison. 

THE   EXCLAMATION   POINT 

1.  An  exclamation  point  follows  a  word,  a  phrase, 
or  a  sentence  that  expresses  strong  feeling  of  any 
kind ;  as  — 

Oh,  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were  come  out  of 
Zion !     Ps.  53 :  6. 

a.  Exceptionally  strong  feeling  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  one  word,  called  an  interjection.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  mark  of  exclamation  follows 
the  interjection;  as,  Alas!  life  is  too  short  for  the 
ambitious  soul. 

b.  When  intense  feeling  pervades  the  entire  sen- 
tence, an  exclamation  point  may  follow  the  inter- 
jection, and  another  the  completed  sentence.  Some- 
times the  interjection  is  followed  by  a  comma  or 
by  no  point  at  all,  and  an  exclamation  is  inserted 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Thus :  Alas !  thy  youth 
is  dead!  Oh,  what  a  cruel  fate  is  mine!  Ah  the 
years,  the  years!  how  they  pass! 


PUNCTUATION  99 

2.  When  a  person  or  a  thing  is  addressed  with 
strong  emotion,  a  mark  of  exclamation,  instead  of  a 
comma,  may  be  placed  after  the  vocative  noun;  as  — 

Your  voiceless  lips,  0  flowers !  are  living  preachers. 

c.  We  must  not  forget  that  the  use  of  the  ex- 
clamation point  is  much  less  subject  to  rule  than  the 
use  of  the  interrogation  point.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  where  one  writer  would  place  the  mark  of  ex- 
clamation immediately  after  the  interjection,  an- 
other would  place  the  point  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence and  insert  a  comma  after  the  interjection. 

d.  In  respect  to  the  use  of  the  exclamation  point 
Professor  Hart  says :  "The  best  advice  that  one  can 
give  to  the  young  is  to  be  very  sparing  in  the  use 
of  the  sign  of  exclamation.  Use  the  sign  only  when 
you  are  fully  conscious  that  your  feeling  is  intense, 
or  that  you  are  directly  addressing  some  person  or 
some  personified  object.  A  composition  dotted  over 
with  ( ! ! )  is  evidence  of  mental  hysteria ;  to  cor- 
rect such  writing  is,  for  the  sober-minded  teacher, 
a  personal  grievance." 

THE  COMMA 

The  comma  marks  the  least  degree  of  separation 
in  the  divisions  of  a  sentence.  It  has  been  called 
the  sign  of  incompleteness.  "It  is  the  group-maker." 
It  shows  what  words  belong  together,  and  serves  to 
keep  words  apart  that  should  not  be  taken  together. 
It  thus  helps  to  prevent  misunderstandings. 


100  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  disuse  the  comma 
in  many  cases  where  it  was  formerly  employed. 
Books  printed  to-day  have  fewer  commas  to  the  page 
than  have  those  printed  twenty-five  or  more  years 
ago.  Hence  we  should  be  careful  not  to  use  the 
comma  too  freely.  It  is  not  needed  so  often  as 
young  writers  are  prone  to  think.  When,  however, 
the  comma  is  needed,  it  is  greatly  needed. 

1.  How  to  Punctuate  the  Series. — When  the  terms 
of  a  series  are  in  the  same  construction,  they  are 
separated  by  commas.  If  all  the  terms  are  connected 
by  conjunctions,  the  commas  are  usually  omitted ; 
but  if  only  the  last  two  terms  are  thus  joined,  the 
comma  is   used   regardless  of  the  conjunction. 

a.  A  series  may  consist  of  nouns  all  subjects  of 
the  same  verb,  of  verbs  having  a  common  subject,  of 
modifiers — adjectives,  adverbs,  phrases,  or  clauses. 
It  may  consist,  though  rarely,  of  short,  closely  re- 
lated coordinate  statements. 

b.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  each  term  of  a  series 
stand  out  in  emphatic  relief,  commas  are  used  even 
though  conjunctions  are  inserted. 

c.  When  no  conjunction  is  inserted,  even  between 
the  last  two  terms,  a  comma  should  follow  the  last 
term  also,  unless  what  follows  is  a  single  word  or  a 
short  expression  closely  connected  with  the  series. 

d.  If  the  terms  of  a  couplet  are  connected  by  a 
conjunction,  no  comma  is  needed. 


•     PUNCTUATION-  161 

Explain  the  punctuation  of  the  folloiving  sen- 
tences in  the  light  of  the  foregoing  rule  and  sug- 
gestions: 

1.  Beauty,  truth,  and  goodness  are  never  out  of 
date. 

2.  The  Indian,  the  sailor,  the  hunter,  only  these 
know  the  power  of  the  hands,  feet,  teeth,  eyes,  and 
ears. 

3.  The  best  part  of  a  man's  life  is  his  little,  name- 
less, unremembered  acts  of  kindness  or  of  love. 

4.  He  was  brave,  pious,  patriotic,  in  all  his  as- 
pirations. 

5.  Life  is  a  constant,  responsible,  unavoidable 
duty. 

6.  They  are  a  rich  and  prosperous  people. 

7.  Some  are  born  great,  some  achieve  greatness, 
and  some  have  greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

8.  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor 
life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor 
things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor 
depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  sep- 
arate us  from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus  our  Lord.    Rom.  8 :  38,  39. 

EXERCISE  II 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  folloiving  sen- 
tences: 

1.  All  was  ended  now,  the  hope  and  the  fear  and 
the  sorrow. 


'jr62''  ''  •'  *  V  '  •  -ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

2.  The  model  business  man  dresses  plainly  prom- 
ises nothing  and  performs  much. 

3.  They  groaned  they  stirred  they  all  uprose. 

4.  They  were  so  shy  so  subtle  and  so  swift  of 
foot  that  it  was  difficult  to  come  at  them. 

5.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted  others  to  be  swal- 
lowed and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 

6.  Ring  out,  wild  bells,  to  the  wild  sky 
The  flying  cloud  the  frosty  air. 

7.  He  searched  for  it  at  home  on  the  street  at 
his  office. 

8.  The  sun  the  moon  the  stars  revolve. 

9.  He  is  adroit  intense  narrow  and  hard. 

10.  Genesis  Exodus  Leviticus  Numbers  Deute- 
ronomy make  up  the  Pentateuch. 

11.  The  description  was  clearly  forcefully  and 
beautifully  written. 

12.  The  earth  the  air  the  water  teem  with  busy 
life. 

13.  He  laughed  he  cried  he  capered  about. 

14.  Regret  for  the  past  grief  at  the  present  and 
anxiety  respecting  the  future  are  plagues  which  af- 
fect the  generality  of  men. 

Note. — Two  or  more  adjectives  sometimes  precede  a  noun, 
which  are  not  in  the  same  construction.  Such  adjectives  require 
ncit her  conjunctions  nor  commas.  For  example,  "a  beautiful 
white  horse."  Here  beautiful  does  not  qualify  korte  alone,  but 
white  horse;  hence  no  comma  separates  the  two  adjectives.  In 
"a  fragrant  little  flower,"  fragrant  modifies  the  expression 
little  flower,  and  must  not  be  separated  from  little.  Other  ex- 
amples are  "a  fine  large  trout,"  "a.  small  speckled  hen,"  "an 
affable  young  man." 


PUNCTUATION  103 

2.  The  Comma  with  Independent  Elements. — Eng- 
lish sentences  exhibit  several  kinds  of  independent 
elements:  (1)  "Vocative" expressions,  (2)  "absolute" 
expressions,  and  (3)  "  parenthetical "  expressions. 

(1)  Vocative  expressions  (nouns  independent  by 
address)  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence 
by  a  comma  or  by  commas;  as — 

Rejoice,  0  young  man,  in  thy  youth. 

a.  When  the  vocative  is  expressed  with  strong 
feeling,  an  exclamation  point  may  follow  it. 

(2)  Absolute  constructions  are  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or  commas. 

b.  An  absolute  construction  may  consist  (a)  of  a 
grammatically  independent  participial  phrase,  or  (b) 
of  a  grammatically  independent  noun  or  pronoun 
modified  by  a  participial  phrase,  or  (c)  of  a  gram- 
matically independent  infinitive  phrase;  as,  We  be- 
ing exceedingly  tossed,  they  lightened  the  ship.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  education  of  the  common  people 
is  advancing  rapidly  in  Japan.  To  speak  candidly, 
your  failure  was  the  result  of  carelessness. 

(3)  Parenthetical  expressions  are,  as  a  rule,  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or 
commas;  as — 

The  man  was,  to  be  sure,  somewhat  conceited. 

c.  The  following  expressions  are  often  used  par- 
enthetically : 

as  it  were  after  all  in  reality 

as  it  happens       beyond  question       without  doubt 


104 


ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 


of  course 

no  doubt 

in  short 

in  truth 

in  a  word 

in  fact 

in  fine 

to  be  sure 

for  the  most  part 

generally  speaking 

now  and  then 

in  the  meantime 


namely  finally 

besides  doubtless 

first  lastly 

moreover  secondly 

to  be  brief  then 

in  general  however 

therefore  too 

indeed  thus 

consequently  again 

on  the  contrary  thirdly 

on  the  other  hand  accordingly 
in  the  first  place 

d.  Most  of  these  locutions  are  susceptible  of  two 
constructions.  Where  they  distinctly  modify  a  par- 
ticular word,  they  are  not  parenthetical,  and  must 
not  be  cut  off  by  commas.  Some  writers  do  not 
isolate  all  of  these  terms,  even  when  they  are  par- 
enthetical. The  comma  is  often  omitted  in  the  case 
of  too,  also,  therefore,  or  perhaps;  especially  when 
they  are  so  introduced  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
harmonious  flow  of  the  sentence,  or  when  the  sen- 
tence is  short. 


EXERCISE  III 


Name  the  independent  expressions  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences.  Insert  commas  where  they  are 
needed: 

1.  You  are  to  speak  frankly  over-confident. 

2.  I  pray  Thee  0  Lord  that  I  may  be  beautiful 
within. 

3.  This  by  the  way  is  where  Washington  Irving 
once  lived. 


PUNCTUATION  105 

4.  The  fault  dear  Brutus  is  not  in  our  stars. 

5.  This  to  say  nothing  worse  is  regrettable. 

6.  It  is  mind  after  all  which  does  the  work  of 
the  world. 

7.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  great  danger  in 
delay. 

8.  Besides  it  may  promote  the  healthfulness  of 
the  town. 

9.  0  velvet  bee  you're  a  dusty  fellow. 

10.  His  father  being  dead  the  prince  ascended  the 
throne. 

11.  Then  came  Jesus  the  doors  being  shut  and 
stood  in  their  midst. 

12.  Thou  knowest  come  what  may  that  the  light 
of  truth  can  never  be  put  out. 

13.  The  sea  being  smooth  we  went  for  a  sail. 

14.  Again  let  us  consider  the  consequences  of  such 
conduct. 

15.  0  death  where  is  thy  sting?  0  grave  where  is 
thy  victory? 

3.  The  Comma  with  Intermediate  Expressions. — 
An  intermediate  expression  which  interrupts  the 
thought  or  the  grammatical  order  of  a  sentence 
should  be  set  off  by  a  comma  or  commas;  as — 

Father,  I  am  pleased  to  say,  is  very  well.  Mere 
energy,  if  not  wisely  directed,  accomplishes  but  lit- 
tle. I  have  endeavored,  in  my  previous  lectures,  to 
show  the  falsity  of  some  current  maxims. 

a.  Intermediate  expressions  are  -phrases  or 
clauses  which  come  between  the  essential  parts  of 


106  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

a  sentence,  as  between  subject  and  predicate,  be- 
tween a  verb  and  its  complement,  or  between  the 
parts  of  a  quotation.  They  closely  resemble  paren- 
thetical expressions. 

EXERCISE  IV 

Insert  needed  commas  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  This  magazine  if  you  are  willing  I  shall  take 
home  with  me. 

2.  He  gave  I  am  told  all  that  he  had. 

3.  "Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nation"  said 
Fletcher  of  Saltoun  "and  I  care  not  who  makes  its 
laws." 

4.  Prudence  as  well  as  courage  is  necessary  to 
success  in  the  conflict  of  life. 

5.  The  brightest  pupil  may  from  want  of  applica- 
tion fail  to  achieve  success  in  school  work. 

6.  Nature  through  all  her  works  delights  in 
variety. 

7.  Man  in  his  higher  moods  aspires  to  God. 

8.  Classical  studies  regarded  merely  as  a  means 
of  culture  are  deserving  of  serious  attention. 

9.  There  is  no  flock  however  watched  and  tended 
but  one  dead  lamb  is  there. 

10.  Phrases  and  clauses  when  not  restrictive  are 
set  off  by  commas. 

b.  An  intermediate  phrase  may  be  restrictive; 
i.  e.,  inseparable  in  thought  from  what  it  modifies; 
in  that  case  it  is  not  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence;  as,  The  man  with  a  white  beard  is 


PUNCTUATION  107 

my  uncle.  The  tree  by  the  bridge  was  blown  down 
last  night.  The  clock  standing  in  the  hall  is  a  hun- 
dred years  old. 

4.  The  Comma  with  Appositional  Expressions. — 
An  appositive  noun,  with  its  modifiers,  is  set  off  by  a 
comma  or  commas.  A  title  or  a  degree  when  it  fol- 
lows the  name  of  a  person,  is  separated  from  the  name 
by  a  comma ;  as  — 

Now  the  bright  morning  star,  day's  harbinger, 
comes  dancing  from  the  east.  The  author  of  this 
book  is  David  Starr  Jordan,  LL.  D. 

a.  In  such  constructions  as  the  following,  no 
comma  is  needed :  The  poet  Lowell  was  a  great  lin- 
guist. Paul  the  apostle  was  a  zealous  missionary. 
The  astronomer  Herschel  made  many  discoveries. 

EXERCISE  V 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following: 

1.  But  Hope  the  charmer  lingered  still  behind. 

2.  Out  of  this  nettle  danger  we  pluck  this  flower 
safety. 

3.  And  he  their  prince  shall  rank  among  my  peers. 

4.  Diogenes  the  Greek  philosopher  was  a  cynic. 

5.  Woodrow  Wilson  Ph  D  LL  D  is  the  president 
of  Princeton  University. 

6.  George  Lyman  Kittredge  A  M  has  written 
much  on  language  and  kindred  subjects. 

7.  It  became  necessary  to  remove  this  rebel  this 
monster  this  serpent  this  firebrand. 


108  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

8.  This  proposition  that  paper  money  should  be 
made  a  full  legal  tender  has  been  fully  discussed. 

9.  Earth's  noblest  thing  a  woman  perfected. 

5.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs. — Words  or  phrases 
in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair ;  as  — 

The  rich  and  the  poor,  the  strong  and  the  weak, 
the  young  and  the  old,  have  one  common  Father. 
In  peace  or  in  war,  in  good  or  in  evil  report,  Wash- 
ington was  always  the  same  calm,  self-sustained 
gentleman.  Interest  and  ambition,  honor  and  shame, 
friendship  and  enmity,  gratitude  and  revenge,  are 
the  prime  movers  in  public  transactions. 

6.  Contrasted  Words  or  Phrases. — Words  or  phrases 
placed  in  contrast  to  each  other  are  separated  by  a 
comma;  as  — 

The  battle,  but  not  honor,  is  lost.  Not  failure, 
but  low  aim,  is  crime. 

EXERCISE  VI 

Where,  according  to  rule  6,  are  commas  needed 
in  the  folloiving  sentences? 

1.  Truth  is  not  a  stagnant  pool  but  a  fountain. 

2.  There  are  few  voices  but  many  echoes  in  the 
world. 

3.  It  is  never  our  tenderness  we  repent  of  but 
our  severity. 

4.  Vainly  but  well  the  chieftain  fought. 

5.  Though  he  slay  me  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

6.  Liberal  not  lavish  is  kind  Nature's  hand. 


PUNCTUATION  109 

7.  Death  thinned  their  ranks  but  could  not  shake 
their  souls. 

8.  We  live  in  deeds  not  years;  in  thoughts  not 
breaths;  in  feelings  not  in  figures  on  a  dial. 

9.  Not  failure  but  low  aim  is  crime. 

10.  Condemn  the  fault  but  not  the  actor  of  it. 

11.  We  walk  by  faith  not  by  sight. 

12.  I  will  speak  daggers  to  her  but  use  none. 

7.  Omitted  Words. — When  a  word  readily  under- 
stood and  necessary  to  the  sense  is  omitted,  the  omis- 
sion is  usually  indicated  by  a  comma ;  as  — 

Carthage  has  crossed  the  Alps;  Rome,  the  sea. 
Theodore  Roosevelt  was  elected  President  of  the 
United  States,  November  8,  1904. 

EXERCISE  VII 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  The  former  of  these  tendencies  was  repre- 
sented by  the  Jews ;  the  latter  by  the  Greeks. 

2.  A  wise  man  seeks  to  shine  in  himself;  a  fool 
in  others. 

3.  From  law  arises  security;  from  security  curi- 
osity; from  curiosity  knowledge. 

4.  Iron  sharpens  iron ;  scholar  the  scholar. 

5.  I  met  Captain  Fowler  in  Dayton  Ohio  June 
21  1899. 

6.  Histories  make  men  wise;  poems  witty;  the 
mathematics  subtle ;  natural  philosophy  deep ;  moral 


110  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

philosophy  grave;  logic  and  rhetoric  able  to  con- 
tend. 

7.  He  follows  his  destiny;  I  mine. 

8.  Virtue  brings  its  own  reward;  vice  its  own 
punishment. 

9.  Columbus  discovered  the  New  World  Friday 
October  12  1492. 

10.  Luck  relies  on  chance;  labor  on  character. 

Note. — An  omitted  verb  is  not  marked  if  there  are  but  two 
clauses,  and  a  conjunction  is  inserted  between  them.  Neither 
is  the  omission  marked  when  the  clauses  are  followed  by  a  modifier 
that  qualifies  them  all  alike.  "In  a  very  light  and  vivacious 
composition  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  not  usually  marked. ' '  Thus : 
Charles  makes  the  more  rapid  progress  in  language,  but  Albert 
in  science.  Plato  was  the  more  speculative,  but  Bacon  the  more 
practical,  in  philosophy.  The  animals  fle<l  to  the  forest,  and  we 
to  the  shelter  of  the  nearest  hut. 

8.  A  Comma  after  a  Long  Subject. — If  the  subject 
of  a  sentence  is  very  long,  especially  if  it  contains  a 
comma  or  commas  within  itself,  or  if  it  ends  with  a 
verb,  it  is  almost  always  followed  by  a  comma ;  as — 

That  the  work  of  forming  and  perfecting  the 
character  is  difficult,  is  universally  admitted.  What- 
ever is,  is  not  necessarily  right.  That  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  hardly  inferior  to  Elizabeth  in  intellectual 
power,  stood  high  above  her  in  fire  and  grace,  and 
brilliancy  of  temper,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  mind 
by  passion  driven  from  its  firm  hold,  becomes  a 
feather  to  each  wind  that  blows.  The  painter  who 
is  content  with  the  praise  of  the  world  for  what 


PUNCTUATION  111 

does  not  satisfy  himself,  is  not  an  artist,  but  an  ar- 
tisan. 

Note. — When  a  noun  clause  is  in  apposition  to  a  preceding 
noun,  the  noun  and  the  clause  are  separated  by  a  comma;  as, 
Who  has  not  heard  the  trite  aphorism,  that  seeing  is  believing? 

9.  The  Comma  in  Compound  Elements. — (a)  The 
clauses  of  a  compound  sentence,  if  short,  and  simple 
in  construction,  are  usually  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  comma  or  commas,  (b)  The  parts  of  a 
compound  predicate,  if  they  are  long,  or  have  dif- 
ferent modifiers,  are  separated  by  commas. 

Examples:  Caesar  was  dead,  the  senators  were 
dispersed,  all  Rome  was  in  confusion.  Lose  an  hour 
in  the  morning,  and  you  will  be  all  day  hunting  for 
it.  Woe  unto  him  that  is  never  alone,  and  can  not 
bear  to  be  alone.  Beauty  flows  in  the  waves  of 
light,  radiates  from  the  human  face  divine,  and 
sparkles  in  the  pathway  of  every  child. 

EXERCISE  VIII 

Insert  in  the  following  sentences  all  needed  com- 
mas: 

1.  He  ran  and  jumped  into  the  pond. 

2.  Thus  he  spoke  and  willingly  they  heeded  and 
obeyed. 

3.  I  appreciate  your  motives  but  I  can  not  ac- 
cept the  aid  you  proffer. 

4.  He  was  a  good  athlete  and  when  it  came  to 
books  he  proved  himself  a  good  student. 


112  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

5.  A  man  of  cultivated  imagination  can  converse 
with  a  picture  and  find  an  agreeable  companion  in 
a  statue. 

6.  She  added  butter  and  milk  and  I  have  forgot- 
ten what  else. 

7.  There  we  found  shade  trees  and  benches  to 
rest  on. 

8.  The  morning  stars  sang  together  and  all  the 
sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy. 

9.  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours. 

10.  He  heaps  up  riches  and  knows  not  who  shall 
gather  them. 

11.  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes  and  the 
children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge. 

12.  That  fellow  seems  to  me  to  possess  but  one 
idea  and  that  is  a  wrong  one. 

13.  They  have  sown  the  wind  and  they  shall  reap 
the  whirlwind. 

14.  Resist  the  devil  and  he  will  flee  from  you. 

15.  Forsake  not  an  old  friend  for  the  new  is  not 
comparable  with  him. 

16.  Be  not  overcome  of  evil  but  overcome  evil 
with  good. 

Note. — When  an  explanatory  noun  or  phrase  is  introduced 
by  the  word  or,  a  comma  is  placed  before  or;  as,  Maize,  or  Indian 
corn,  is  grown  more  extensively  in  the  United  States  than  in 
any   other   country. 

Note. — "If  one  of  two  or  more  words  or  phrases  which  are 
in  the  same  construction  has  a  modifier  which  belongs  to  itself 
only,  this'  word  or  phrase  with  its  modifiers  should  be  separated 


PUNCTUATION  113 

from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas ; ' '  as,  The  good  of  the 
school,  and  the  good  of  the  individual  pupil,  necessitated  the 
enforcement   of  the   rule. 

10.  Non-Restrictive  Phrases  and  Clauses.  —  Use 
commas  to  set  off  adjective  phrases  and  clauses  when 
they  are  not  restrictive. 

An  adjective  phrase  or  clause  is  restrictive  when 
it  can  not  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  sense. 
Such  a  phrase  or  clause  narrows  or  restricts  the 
meaning  of  what  it  modifies.  In  the  sentence,  "He 
that  overcometh  shall  inherit  all  things,"  the  ad- 
jective clause  "that  overcometh"  is  restrictive;  for 
it  restricts  the  meaning  of  the  predicate  "shall  in- 
herit all  things"  to  one  kind  of  person;  namely,  the 
one  that  overcomes.  Not  every  person  shall  inherit 
all  things. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  books  lying  on  the  table 
belong  to  the  teacher,"  the  participial  phrase  "ly- 
ing on  the  table"  is  restrictive,  because  it  points  out 
or  specifies  tvhat  books  belong  to  the  teacher. 

A  non-restrictive  clause  is  really  equivalent  to  an 
additional  thought.  In  the  sentence,  "Ichabod,  who 
had  no  relish  for  this  strange  midnight  companion, 
now  quickened  his  steed,"  the  clause  is  non-restrict- 
ive, the  sentence  being  equivalent  to  "Ichabod  now 
quickened  his  steed,"  and  the  additional  statement, 
"Ichabod  had  no  relish  for  this  strange  midnight 
companion."  The  relative  clause  does  not  limit  the 
sense  of  the  predicate  to  a  particular  Ichabod,  in 
distinction  to  other  Ichabods. 


114  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  IX 

In  the  folloiving  sentences  insert  all  needed  com- 
mas. Some  of  the  sentences  need  no  further  punc- 
tuation: 

1.  Winfield  who  really  had  worked  very  hard 
felt  that  he  deserved  some  remuneration. 

2.  The  moon  which  was  covered  with  clouds  last 
night  is  bright  this  evening. 

3.  His  face  which  was  easy  to  see  at  that  dis- 
tance was  ruddy. 

4.  Some  men  are  like  pyramids  which  are  very 
broad  where  they  touch  the  ground  but  grow  nar- 
row as  they  reach  the  sky. 

5.  Learn  to  be  good  readers  which  is  perhaps  a 
more  difficult  thing  than  you  imagine. 

6.  The  moons  that  revolve  around  Jupiter  are 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

7.  Men  are  like  sheep  of  which  a  flock  is  more 
easily  driven  than  a  single  one. 

8.  Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom  and 
the  man  that  getteth  understanding. 

9.  The  man  whom  we  saw  just  now  is  my  cousin 
Clarence. 

10.  Give  this  to  the  girl  having  the  highest  mark 
in  English  composition. 

11.  Take  the  road  turning  to  the  right  just  be- 
yond the  barn. 

12.  The  gain  which  is  made  at  the  expense  of 
reputation  should  be  considered  a  loss. 


PUNCTUATION  115 

13.  That  style  is  best  and  purest  which  needs 
the  fewest  sign-posts  to  its  sentences. 

14.  The  stars  which  twinkle  are  distant  suns 
shining  like  our  sun  with  their  own  light;  those 
which  do  not  twinkle  are  worlds  like  our  earth  and 
are  rolling  with  it  about  our  sun  at  various  distances. 

15.  He  that  loveth  Me  shall  be  loved  of  My  Father. 

16.  The  images  carved  on  the  ceiling  were  over- 
laid with  gold. 

17.  The  soldiers  fearing  an  attack  slept  on  their 
arms. 

18.  The  lecture  given  by  Mr.  Parker  was  highly 
praised. 

19.  The  strong  man  trusting  in  himself  forgets 
caution. 

20.  Give  me  the  charity  which  delights  not  in 
exposing  the  weaknesses  of  others  but  "eovereth  all 
things." 

21.  There  are  two  men  in  the  world  who  are  per- 
fectly happy.  The  first  is  the  wholly  ignorant  man 
who  is  happy  because  he  thinks  that  he  knows  every- 
thing. The  second  is  the  really  learned  man  who 
is  happy  because  he  knows  that  there  will  always 
be  something  for  him  to  learn. — Persian  Proverb. 

22.  The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself 
Nor    is    not   moved    with   concord    of    sweet 

sounds 
Is  fit  for  treason's  stratagems  and  spoils. 

Note. — When  a  relative  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  nouns 
ur  pronouns  as  its  antecedents,  the  adjective  clause  introduced  by 


116  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

such  relative  pronoun,  whether  restrictive  or  not,  is  preceded  by 
a  comma;  as,  He  had  hopes,  fears,  and  longings,  which  his  friends 
could  not   share. 

11.  The  Comma  with  Adverbial  Phrases  and 
Clauses. — An  adverbial  phrase  or  clause,  unless  short 
and  closely  connected  with  the  word  that  it  modifies, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
a  comma.  If  an  adverbial  phrase  or  clause  comes 
first,  or  is  transposed,  it  is  almost  always  followed 
by  commas;  as' — 

Though  the  mills  of  God  grind  slowly,  yet  they 

grind  exceeding  small; 
Though  with  patience  He  stands  waiting,  with 

exactness  grinds  He  all. 

Where  the  average  of  virtue  and  intelligence  is 
high,  higher  forms  of  government  are  possible. 

EXERCISE  X 

Name  the  adverbial  elements  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.   Insert  commas  wherever  they  are  needed: 

1.  As  soon  as  he  had  left  Portia  sent  a  message 
to  Padua. 

2.  In  the  confusion  that  followed  Harry  Jones 
was  forgotten. 

3.  In  whatever  we  attempt  attention  is  of  prime 
importance. 

4.  In  the  cold  and  darkness  a  poor  little  girl 
with  bare  head  and  naked  feet  roamed  through  the 
streets. 


PUNCTUATION  117 

5.  The  tree  will  not  bear  fruit  in  autumn  unless 
it  blossoms  in  spring. 

6.  If  wishes  were  horses  beggars  might  ride. 

7.  Where  there  is  no  tale-bearer  strife  ceaseth. 

8.  If  the  young  are  taught  how  to  think  they 
will  soon  learn  what  to  think. 

9.  The  season  must  have  been  a  rainy  one  for 
vegetation  is  rank. 

10.  When  a  miser  has  lost  his  hoard  he  has  noth- 
ing left  to  comfort  him. 

11.  On  scanty  rations  besieged  on  every  side 
knowing  that  hope  of  succor  or  escape  was  vain 
the  garrison  has  fought  with  a  stubbornness  that 
has  evoked  the  admiration  of  the  world. 

12.  For  the  purpose  of  helping  the  backward 
please  explain  the  problem  again. 

13.  In  the  little  brown  house  below  the  hill  you 
will  find  a  family  of  bright  youngsters. 

14.  You  may  go  when  you  please.  (Connection 
close.) 

15.  We  will  go  if  you  wish.     (Close.) 

16.  You  will  reap  as  you  sow.     (Close.) 

17.  In  the  morning  we  will  go  to  them.     (Close.) 

18.  When  no  man  is  watching  you  be  afraid  of 
yourself. 

19.  Even  if  a  donkey  goes  traveling  he  will  not 
come  home  a  horse. 

20.  He  ran  as  far  as  he  could  when  he  fell  ex- 
hausted. 

21.  Of  those  present  four  favored  the  plan. 


118  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

22.  If  all  sentences  consisted  of  but  one  simple 
statement  not  more  than  half  a  dozen  words  in 
length  we  should  need  only  the  period  to  punctuate 
them. 

23.  You'll  be  sorry  if  you  do.     (Close.) 

24.  Look  where  I  point.     (Close.) 

25.  By  all  means  come.     (Short  and  close.) 

12.  The  Comma  after  and  before  a  Quotation. — 
When  a  direct  quotation  is  a  part  of  a  sentence,  it 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a  comma  or  commas ;  as  — 

"I  see  it,"  was  the  cool  reply  of  the  captain.  "My 
style  was  not  formed  without  great  care,  and  earnest 
study  of  the  best  authors,"  said  Webster.  "The 
object  of  education,"  said  the  philosopher  Kant, 
"is  to  develop  in  each  individual  all  the  perfection 
of  which  he  is  susceptible." 

Note. — When  a  quotation  is  long  or  when  it  is  formally  in- 
troduced, a  colon  should  be  placed  before  it  ;  as,  Spurgeon  puts 
these  words  into  the  mouth  of  John  Ploughman:  "Shirt-sleeves 
rolled  up  lead  on  to  best  broadcloth;  and  be  who  is  not  ashamed 
of    the   apron    will    soon    be   able    to    do    without    it.'' 

13.  "Yes"  and  "No."— "Yes"  or  "No,"  according 
to  its  use,  may  be  followed  by  a  comma,  a  semi- 
colon, a  colon,  a  period,  an  interrogation  point,  an 
exclamation  point,  or  a  dash.  When  "yes"  or  "no" 
is  only  a  part  of  an  answer,  it  is  almost  always  fol- 
lowed by  a  comma ;  as  — 

Shall  you  vote  the  Prohibition  ticket? — Yes,  I 
shall.  Do  you  like  to  play  football? — No,  I  never 
did  like  rough  games. 


PUNCTUATION  119 

THE  SEMICOLON 

1.  The  Semicolon  between  Clauses.— When  one  or 
more  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  contain  a 
comma  or  commas,  they  should  be  separated  by  a 
semicolon;  as — 

The  path  of  duty  is  a  plain  and  safe  path;  that 
of  falsehood,  a  perplexing  maze.  Man  is  unjust, 
but  God  is  just;  and  finally  justice  triumphs.  Pros- 
perity is  naturally,  though  not  necessarily,  attached 
to  virtue  and  merit ;  adversity  to  folly  and  vice. 

Note. — When  the  clauses  of  a  Compound  sentence  are  very 
short;  and  closely  connected,  they  are  sometimes  separated  by  a 
comma  though  they  contain  commas.  This  is  largely  a  matter 
of  the  writer's  taste. 

EXERCISE  XI 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  Our  first  work  is  to  lay  the  foundation  our 
second  to  build  the  superstructure. 

2.  To  be  perfectly  just  is  the  prerogative  of  God 
to  be  so  to  the  utmost  of  our  ability  is  the  glory 
of  man. 

3.  It  is  the  mind  that  makes  the  body  rich  and 
as  the  sun  breaks  through  the  darkest  clouds  so 
honor  peereth  in  the  meanest  habit. 

4.  Laziness  grows  on  people  it  begins  in  cob- 
webs and  ends  in  iron  chains. 


120  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

5.  The  point  on  the  horizon  at  which  the  sun 
rises  is  called  the  east  at  which  it  sets  the  west. 

6.  The  small  courtesies  sweeten  life  the  greater 
ennoble  it. 

7.  Some  faces  are  in  their  brightness  a  prophecy 
and  some  in  their  sadness  a  history. 

8.  Wear  your  learning  like  your  watch  in  a  pri- 
vate pocket  and  do  not  pull  it  out  and  stroke  it 
merely  to  show  that  you  have  one. 

9.  If  you  want  knowledge  you  must  toil  for  it 
if  food  you  must  toil  for  it  and  if  pleasure  you 
must  toil  for  it.     Toil  is  the  law. 

10.  The  sky  was  cloudless  the.  sun  shone  out 
bright  and  warm  the  songs  of  birds  and  hum  of 
myriad  insects  filled  the  air  the  cottage  garden 
crowded  with  every  rich  and  beautiful  tint  sparkled 
in  the  heavy  dew  like  beds  of  glittering  jewels. 

2.  The  Semicolon  between  Independent  Sentences. 
— A  semicolon,  instead  of  a  period,  is  placed  between 
independent  sentences  so  closely  related  in  thought 
that  it  is  undesirable  to  separate  them  with  a  period  ; 
as  — 

Nothing  is  difficult ;  it  is  only  we  who  are  indolent. 
Ingratitude  is  the  abridgment  of  all  baseness;  a 
fault  never  found  unattended  with  other  vices.  The 
blue  sky  now  turned  more  softly  gray;  the  great 
watch-stars  shut  up  their  holy  eyes;  the  east  began 
to  kindle. 


PUNCTUATION  121 

EXERCISE  XII 

Insert,  in  the  following  sentences,  all  needed  semi- 
colons: 

1.  Genius  begins  great  works  labor  alone  fin- 
ishes them. 

2.  He  that  forgets  his  friend  is  ungrateful  to 
him  but  he  that  forgets  his  Saviour  is  unmerciful 
to  himself. 

3.  God  intends  no  man  to  live  in  this  world  with- 
out working  but  it  seems  to  me  no  less  evident  that 
He  intends  every  man  to  be  happy  in  his  work. 

4.  To  acquire  a  few  tongues  is  the  task  of  a  few 
years  but  to  be  eloquent  in  one  is  the  labor  of  a  life. 

5.  Lying  lips  are  an  abomination  unto  the  Lord 
but  they  that  deal  truly  are  His  delight. 

6.  Straws  swim  at  the  surface  but  pearls  lie  at 
the  bottom. 

7.  A  lie  which  is  half  a  truth  is  ever  the  blackest 

of  lies 

A  lie  which  is  all  a  lie  may  be  met  and  fought 
with  outright 

But  a  lie  which  is  part  a  truth  is  a  harder  mat- 
ter to  fight.  -TENNYSON. 

3.  The  Semicolon  before  Introductory  Terms. — 
When  "as,"  "e.  g.,"  "i.  e.,"  "viz.,"  "to  wit,"  "namely," 
"that  is,"  or  "thus,"  introduces  an  example,  a  semi- 
colon should  be  placed  before  it.  These  terms  are 
almost  always  followed  by  a  comma,  but  occasionally 
by  a  colon  or  a  colon  and  a  dash;  as  — 


122  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

There  are  four  eminent  American  historians; 
namely,  George  Bancroft,  W.  H.  Prescott,  J.  L. 
Motley,  and  Francis  Parkman.  He  always  went  into 
the  darkest  and  deepest  recesses;  that  is,  he  took 
up  the  part  which  no  man  had  touched. 

The   student   should   find   additional   illustrations    of   this   rule. 

4.  Clauses  Having  a  Common  Dependence. — A  series 
of  clauses  having  a  common  dependence  are  usually 
separated  by  semicolons,  to  give  greater  emphasis  to 
each;  as  — 

That  benevolence  which  prompted  Jesus  to  in- 
cessant exertions;  which  supported  Him  through 
unparalleled  suffering;  which  was  alike  the  soul 
of  His  discourses,  His  actions,  His  miracles;  which 
shone  through  His  life  and  His  death ;  whose  splen- 
dors were  around  His  brow  when  He  expired  on 
the  cross,  and  when  He  sat  down  on  the  right  hand 
of  the  Majesty  on  high, — what  is  it  but  a  glorious 
revelation  of  the  glorious  truth  that  God  is  love? 
The  honorable  member  may  perhaps  find  that,  in 
that  contest,  there  will  be  blows  to  take  as  well 
as  blows  to  give;  that  others  can  state  comparisons 
as  significant,  at  least,  as  his  own;  and  that  his 
impunity  may  possibly  demand  of  him  whatever 
powers  of  taunt  and  sarcasm  he  may  possess. 

Note. — The  phrases  of  a  series,  when  they  are  long, — especially 
if  they  are  somewhat  complicated,  and  some  or  all  of  them  con- 
tain commas, — may  be  separated  by  semicolons;  as.  If  we  think 
of  glory   in  the  field;   of   wisdom   in   the   cabinet;    of   the   purest 


PUNCTUATION  123 

patriotism;  of  the  highest  integrity,  public  and  private;  of 
morals  without  a  stain;  of  religious  feeling  without  intolerance 
and  without  extravagance, — the  august  character  of  Washington 
presents  itself  as  the  personification  of  all  of  them. 

EXERCISE  XIII 

Complete  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  He  told  us  how  he  had  been  left  alone  on  the 
island  how  for  many  days  he  had  lived  upon  berries, 
roots,  and  the  bark  of  trees  how  at  last  when  nearly 
dead  with  hunger  and  exposure  to  cold  winds  he 
had  been  rescued. 

2.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident, — that 
all  men  are  created  equal  that  they  are  endowed  by 
their  Creator  with  certain  inalienable  rights  that 
among  these  are  life  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  hap- 
piness. 

3.  To  give  an  early  preference  to  honor  above  gain 
when  they  stand  in  competition  to  despise  every  ad- 
vantage that  can  not  be  attained  without  dishonest 
acts  to  brook  no  meanness  and  to  stoop  to  no  dis- 
simulations, are  the  indications  of  a  great  mind. 

4.  Perfect  wisdom  hath  four  parts  viz.,  wisdom 
the  principle  of  doing  things  aright  justice  the  prin- 
ciple of  doing  things  equally  in  public  and  private 
fortitude  the  principle  of  not  flying  danger  but  meet- 
ing it  and  temperance  the  principle  of  subduing 
desires  and  living  moderately. 


124  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

5.  Make  sure  that  however  good  you  may  be  you 
have  your  faults  that  however  dull  you  may  be  you 
can  find  out  what  they  are  and  that  however  slight 
they  may  be  you  would  better  make  some  patient 
effort  to  get  quit  of  them. — Ruskin. 

6.  The  ground  strewed  with  the  dead  and  dying 
the  impetuous  charge  the  steady  and  successful  re- 
pulse the  loud  call  to  repeated  assault — all  these  you 
have  witnessed. 

7.  He  was  courteous  not  cringing  to  superiors  af- 
fable not  familiar  to  equals  and  kind  but  not  con- 
descending to  inferiors. 

THE  COLON 

In  regard  to  the  office  of  the  colon,  Mr.  Alfred 
M.  Hitchcock  says :  "When  the  reader  sees  the  colon, 
he  assumes  at  once  that  what  follows  it  will  be  an 
enumeration,  an  explanation  of  something  which  has 
gone  before.  ...  It  has  been  called  the  mark 
of  'expectancy  or  anticipation/  " 

1.  The  Colon  with  Introductory  Expressions. — A 
colon  is  placed  before  a  direct  quotation,  an  argu- 
ment, a  speech,  or  a  list  of  particulars,  when  for- 
mally introduced. 

Note. — We  learned,  when  we  studied  the  uses  of  the  comma, 
that  a  short  quotation,  when  not  formally  introduced,  should  have 
a  comma,  instead  of  a  colon,  placed  before  it.  An  introduction 
is  formal  if  it  is  made  by  such  expressions  as  the  following,  as 
follows,  these,  in  these  words,  this,  and  sometimes  thus,  and 
so  on. 


PUNCTUATION  125 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  foregoing 
rule: 

When  the  Romans  were  clamoring,  at  a  time  of 
scarcity,  for  a  distribution  of  corn  at  the  public  ex- 
pense, Cato  began  a  speech  in  opposition  to  it,  thus : 
"It  is  hard,  fellow-citizens,  to  address  the  stomach, 
because  it  has  no  ears."  His  words  were  these: 
"If  I  am  guilty,  punish  me."  Lord  Bacon  has 
summed  up  the  whole  matter  in  the  following  words : 
"A  little  philosophy  inclineth  men's  minds  to  athe- 
ism ;  but  depths  in  philosophy  bringeth  men's  minds 
to  religion."    These  are  the  terms :  No  cure,  no  pay. 

2.  The  Colon  before  a  Series  of  Particulars  Separa- 
ted by  Semicolons. — In  an  enumeration  of  particulars, 
if  the  parts  are  separated  from  one  another  by  semi- 
colons, they  should  be  separated  from  the  general 
term  by  a  colon;  as  — 

Three  things  too  much,  and  three  too  little  are 
pernicious  to  man :  to  speak  much,  and  know  little ; 
to  spend  much,  and  have  little;  to  presume  much, 
and  to  be  worth  little. 

Mankind  has  been  divided  into  five  different  races : 
the  White,  or  Caucasian  Race,  named  from  the  Cau- 
casus Mountains;  the  Yellow,  or  Mongolian  Race, 
which  includes  the  Chinese  and  Japanese;  the  Red, 
or  American  Race,  which  includes  the  American  In- 
dians ;  the  Black,  or  Ethiopian  Race,  which  inhabits 
the  interior  of  Africa;  and  the  Brown,  or  Malayan 


126  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Race,  which  includes  all  the  other  barbarous  in- 
habitants of  the  world. — Tarbell. 

As  a  kind  of  corollary  to  this  rule  it  should  be 
stated  that  a  colon  may  be  used  to  mark  the  omis- 
sion of  namely,  viz.,  or  that  is.  Formerly  a  dash 
was  used  to  indicate  such  an  omission,  but  to-day 
the  colon  is  preferred  by  reputable  writers. 

Examples:  Carlyle  says,  "There  are  but  two  ways 
of  paying  a  debt:  increase  of  industry  in  raising 
income,  increase  of  thrift  in  laying  out."  There  are 
at  least  four  varieties  of  evergreen:  pine,  spruce, 
cedar,  and  hemlock.  A  great  lesson  which  the  lives 
of  successful  men  teach  us  is  told  in  a  single  word : 
Wait!  One  secret  of  success  lies  in  four  words: 
Stick  to  one  thing. 

3.  The  Colon  before  an  Explanatory  Clause. — When 
a  clause  that  is  in  itself  a  complete  sentence,  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  clause  that  explains  or  illustrates  the  first 
clause  or  draws  an  inference  from  it,  they  are  sepa- 
rated, as  a  rule,  by  a  colon  if  there  is  no  conjunction 
between  them ;  if  a  conjunction  is  inserted,  by  a 
semicolon;  as  — 

Happiness  is  not  the  end  of  life:  character  is. 
It  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  devise  good  laws:  the 
difficulty  is  to  make  them  effective. 

'Tis  education  forms  the  common  mind: 
Just  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree's  inclined. 
The  greatest   truths   are   the   simplest;    and    so 
are  the  greatest  men. 


PUNCTUATION  127 

EXERCISE  XIV 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Knowledge  is  of  two  kinds  we  know  a  sub- 
ject ourselves  or  we  know  where  we  can  find  in- 
formation upon  it. 

2.  He  who  seldom  thinks  of  heaven  is  not  likely 
to  get  there  the  only  way  to  hit  the  mark  it  to  keep 
the  eye  fixed  upon  it. 

3.  To  be  bold  against  an  enemy  is  common  to 
brutes  but  to  be  bold  against  himself  is  the  preroga- 
tive of  man. 

4.  Never  flatter  people  leave  that  to  such  as  mean 
to  betray  them. 

5.  Study  to  acquire  the  habit  of  thinking  no 
study  is  more  important. 

6.  Satire  should  not  be  like  a  saw  but  a  sword 
it  should  cut  and  not  mangle. 

7.  Some  things  we  can  do  and  others  we  can  not 
do  we  can  walk  but  we  can  not  fly. 

8.  "Unlike  the  comma  and  the  semicolon  the 
colon  does  not  merely  separate  elements  of  the  sen- 
tence it  points  out  the  relation  between  elements. 

9.  The  man  of  one  book  is  always  formidable  but 
when  that  book  is  the  Bible  he  is  irresistible. 

10.  There  are  two  freedoms  the  false  where  a  man 
is  free  to  do  what  he  likes  the  true  where  a  man  is 
free  to  do  what  he  ought. 


128  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

QUOTATION  MARKS 

When  we  copy  the  exact  words  of  some  one,  they 
are  said  to  be  quoted,  and  are  called  a  quotation. 
By  the  reading  of  books  and  journals  we  have  doubt- 
less fixed  the  following  rule  in  mind: 

1.  A  copied  word  or  passage  should  be  enclosed 
with  quotation  marks;  as — 

"The  habit  of  looking  on  the  bright  side  of  every 
event  is  worth  more  than  a  thousand  pounds,"  says 
Samuel  Johnson. 

If  a  quotation  contains  a  quotation  the  latter 
should  be  enclosed  with  single  quotation  marks ;  as — 

The  pupil  answered,  "The  assertion,  'I  would 
rather  be  right  than  be  president/  was  made  by 
Henry  Clay." 

2.  The  title  of  a  book  or  a  journal  is  sometimes  en- 
closed with  quotation  marks.  When  such  a  title  is 
printed  in  italics,  it  should  not  be  enclosed. 

Direct  and  Indirect  Quotations. — A  direct  quo- 
tation is  a  copy  of  the  exact  words  in  which  an  idea 
or  a  thought  was  before  expressed.  An  indirect 
quotation  copies  or  reports  the  thought,  but  not 
the  exact  words  of  the  original. 

Indirect  quotations  need  no  quotation  marks. 

He  said,  "I  will  be  responsible  for  the  education 
of  the  lad,"  contains  a  direct  quotation. 

He  said  that  he  would  be  responsible  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  lad,  contains  an  indirect  quotation. 


PUNCTUATION  129 

3.  A  quotation  consisting  of  two  or  more  para- 
graphs requires  the  inverted  commas  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  paragraph,  but  the  closing  marks  follow 
the  last  paragraph  only. 

EXERCISE  XV 

Punctuate  the  folloiving  and  supply  capitals  where 
they  are  needed: 

1.  His  last  words  were  I  know  that  my  Redeemer 
liveth. 

2.  What  can  I  do  for  you  inquired  the  salesman. 

3.  Our  teacher  said  put  your  books  away  and 
I  will  read  to  you  one  of  Kipling's  poems. 

4.  Is  the  route  practicable  inquired  Napoleon.  It 
is  barely  possible  to  pass  replied  the  engineer.  Then 
forward  rejoined  Napoleon. 

5.  George  Eliot  declared  when  death  the  great 
reconciler  has  come  it  is  never  of  our  tenderness 
that  we  repent  but  of  our  severity. 

6.  I  came  he  said  to  see  the  grand  procession  and 
to  hear  the  people  shout  long  live  the  queen. 

7.  On  one  occasion  says  Whittier  I  was  told  that 
a  foreigner  had  applied  to  my  mother  for  lodging. 
What  if  a  son  of  mine  were  in  a  strange  land  she 
said  to  herself. 

8.  Mr.  Simmons  cited  these  words  Johnson  well 
says  he  who  waits  to  do  a  great  deal  of  good  at 
once  will  never  do  anything. 

9.  He  said  to  me  as  I  walked  to  the  telephone 
talk  easy  listen  hard. 


130  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

10.  By  your  continual  fault-finding  you  irritate 
your  pupils  answered  the  superintendent. 

THE  DASH 

1.  Parenthetical  expressions  too  independent  in 
construction  to  admit  of  commas,  are  enclosed  either 
by  dashes  or  by  marks  of  parenthesis.  A  parenthet- 
ical expression  enclosed  by  dashes  is  usually  less  inde- 
pendent of  the  context  than  one  enclosed  by  the 
curves  of  parenthesis. 

Examples:  In  truth,  the  character  of  the  great 
chief  was  depicted  two  thousand  five  hundred  years 
before  his  birth,  and  depicted — such  is  the  power 
of  genius — in  colors  which  will  be  fresh  as  many 
years  after  his  death.  The  smile  of  a  child — always 
ready  when  there  is  no  distress,  and  so  soon  recur- 
ring when  that  distress  has  passed  away — is  like 
an  opening  of  the  sky,  showing  heaven  beyond.  Re- 
ligion— who  can  doubt  it — is  the  noblest  theme  for 
the  exercise  of  the  intellect.  There  are  times — 
they  only  can  understand  who  know  them — when 
passion  is  dumb,  and  purest  love  maintains  her  own 
dominion.  To  Anderson — a  young  man  of  fancy — 
everything  in  Italy  was  a  delight. 

2.  A  dash  is  used  to  mark  an  abrupt  change  either 
in  the  construction  or  in  the  thought  or  sentiment; 
as  — 

Her  soul  was  noble — in  her  own  opinion.  Was 
there  ever  a  bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band? 


PUNCTUATION  131 

Was  there  ever — but  I  scorn  to  boast.  Then  he 
turned  to  the  future — and  ordered  his  dinner.  If 
you  will  give  me  your  attention,  I  will  show  you — 
but  stop;  I  do  not  know  that  you  wish  to  hear  me. 
Have  you  ever  seen — but  of  course  you  never  have. 
He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind — no  freckles  on  his 
nose.  Moses,  Joshua,  Gideon,  David,  Daniel, — these 
are  the  names  that  impart  luster  to  Jewish  history. 

3.  A  pause  or  a  repetition  that  is  intended  for  em- 
phasis or  elocutionary  effect  is  usually  indicated  by  a 
dash;  as — 

There  is  one  quality  which  everywhere  charac- 
terizes growth — the  quality  of  repose.  Moses,  with 
God  on  the  mountain,  came  down  with  a  shining 
lace — shining  so  brightly  with  unconscious  power 
that  the  people  could  not  look  upon  him  until  he 
was  veiled.  If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an 
Englishmen,  while  a  foreign  troop  were  landed  in 
my  country,  I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms — 
never,  never,  never! 

Yet  we  in  Oxford,  brought  up  amidst  the  beauty 
and  sweetness  of  that  beautiful  place,  have  not  failed 
to  seize  one  truth, — the  truth  that  beauty  and  sweet- 
ness are  essential  characters  of  a  complete  human 
perfection. 

4.  A  period  and  dash  are  inserted,  as  a  rule,  at  the 
end  of  a  side  head,  as  shown  in  the  following  note : 


132  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Note. — The  dash  should  not  be  used  carelessly  in  place  of 
the  other  marks  of  punctuation.  The  abuse  of  the  dash  is  char- 
acteristic  of   lazy   writers. — Herrick   and   Damon. 

The  student  should  notice  the  use  of  the  dash 
at  the  end  of  the  foregoing  note. 

5.  A  dash  may  be  used  between  figures  or  letters 
to  denote  that  the  intervening  figures  or  letters  are 
to  be  included;  it  may  be  used,  too,  to  denote  the 
omission  of  figures,  letters,  or  words ;  as  — 

Jackson  was  president  1829 — 1836. 

He  was  born  in  18 — ,  in ,  Delaware. 

6.  The  parts  of  a  dialogue  or  of  a  conversation, 
when  run  into  a  paragraph  instead  of  beginning  sep- 
arate lines,  are  sometimes  separated  by  dashes ;  as  — 

"Shall  you  attend  school  this  year?"— "I  shall." 
MARKS  OF  PARENTHESIS;   BRACKETS 

1.  A  word,  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence  inserted 
where  it  is  not  necessary  to  the  sense  or  the  construc- 
tion, as  for  explanation,  qualification,  or  any  similar 
purpose,  should  be  enclosed  within  marks  of  paren- 
thesis; as  — 

Know  this  truth  (enough  for  any  man  to  know)  : 
God  is  love.  My  new  bicycle  (Is  it  not  handsome?) 
is  of  the  latest  design. 

2.  In  reports  of  speeches,  marks  of  parenthesis  are 
used  to  enclose  remarks  of  approval  or  disapproval  by 


PUNCTUATION  133 

the  audience,  and  to  enclose  the  name  of  the  person 
indicated  by  a  pronoun,  by  gestures,  or  otherwise; 
as — 

* '  Mr.  Chairman,  I  beg  leave  to  ask  the  gentleman 
from  Iowa  (Mr.  Allison)  a  question  which  he  would 
prefer  to  answer  elsewhere  (here,  here) . ' ' 

3.  Numerals  when  employed  for  the  sake  of  a  clear 
enumeration  of  the  parts  or  divisions  of  a  general 
subject,  are  sometimes  enclosed  by  marks  of  paren- 
thesis. An  interrogation  point  or  an  exclamation 
point  is  sometimes  similarly  enclosed  to  indicate  a 
query  or  a  doubt. 

4.  The  Brackets  []  are  used  to  enclose  an  interpo- 
lation, which  is  intended  to  correct  an  error,  afford 
an  explanation,  supply  an  omission,  or  give  a  refer- 
ence; as — 

"The  jury  is  [are]  not  agreed.' '  "Webster  was 
more  eloquent  than  any  [other]  orator  of  his  day." 

Dr.  Hart  says :  "The  brackets  are  used  to  enclose 
a  sentence,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  within  the  body 
of  another  sentence,  and  thus  far  are  like  the  marks 
of  parenthesis.  But  the  matter  included  within 
brackets  is  entirely  independent  of  the  sentence,  and 
so  differs  from  what  is  merely  parenthetical.  Fur- 
ther, the  matter  within  the  brackets  is  usually  in- 
serted by  one  writer  to  correct  or  add  to  what  has 
been  written  by  another,  while  the  parenthesis  is 
a  part  of  the  original  composition,  and  is  written 
by  the  same  person  that  wrote  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence." 


134  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  XVI 

Guided  by  the  foregoing  rules  and  principles,  the 
student  should,  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  punctuate 
the  following  sentences: 

1.  Nellie  has  beautiful  golden  hair  but  lets  it  go 
unkempt. 

2.  If  a  verb  can  represent  its  subject  as  act- 
ing on  something  it  is  called  transitive. 

3.  Some  nouns  like  gnome  and  fairy  name  things 
that  are  unreal. 

4.  Grant  said  I  will  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it 
takes  all  summer. 

5.  Certain  pronouns  are  used  as  subjects  but 
not  as  objects.  These  are  the  following  /  he  she 
we  they  who  and  whoever. 

6.  The  true  and  noble  way  to  kill  a  foe  is  not 
to  kill  him  you  with  kindness  may  so  change  him 
that  he  shall  cease  to  be  a  foe  and  then  he's  slain. 

7.  Professor  A.  S.  Hill  once  said  Every  year 
Harvard  sends  out  men  some  of  them  high  scholars 
whose  manuscripts  would  disgrace  a  boy  of  twelve 
and  yet  the  college  can  hardly  be  blamed  for  she 
can  not  be  expected  to  conduct  an  infant  school  for 
adults. 

8.  You  may  glean  knowledge  by  reading  but  you 
must  separate  the  chaff  from  the  wheat  by  thinking. 

9.  Brilliancy  is  well  enough  but  character  is  bet- 
ter it  stands  the  wear  and  tear  of  life. 


PUNCTUATION  135 

10.  Anger  says  Richter  wishes  that  all  mankind 
had  only  one  neck  love  that  it  had  only  one  heart 
grief  two  tear-glands  pride  two  bent  knees. 

11.  The  following  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns 
are  used  as  direct  and  indirect  objects  but  not  as 
subjects  me  him  her  us  them  whom  whomever. 

12.  My  St  Bernard  dog  is  he  not  a  fine  fellow  cost 
me  twenty-five  dollars. 

13.  Ill  fares  the  land  to  hastening  ills  a  prey 
Where  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay 
Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  or  may  fade 
A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  has  made 
But  a  bold  peasantry  their  country's  pride 
When  once  destroyed  can  never  be  supplied. 

14.  He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a  wise  son  but 
he  that  sleepeth  in  harvest  is  a  son  that  causeth 
shame. 

15.  Alas  poor  Clifford  you  are  old  and  worn  with 
troubles  that  ought  never  to  have  befallen  you. 

16.  Pride  of  all  others  the  most  dangerous  fault 
Proceeds   from   want   of   sense   or   want   of 

thought 

17.  Edward  Everett  Hale  gave  the  students  at 
Amherst  Agricultural  Colloge  these  three  rules 

a    Live  in  the  open  air  all  you  can. 
b   Touch  elbows  with  the  rank  and  file, 
c    Speak  every  day  to  some  one  whom  you  know 
to  be  your  superior. 

18.  The  human  mind  is  like  a  millstone  in  a  mill 
when  you  put  wheat  under  it  it  turns  and  grinds  and 


136  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

bruises  the  wheat  to  flour  if  you  put  no  wheat  it  still 
grinds  on  but  then  'tis  itself  it  grinds  and  wears 
away. — Luther. 

19.  Greek's  harp  we  love  to  hear 
Latin  is  a  trumpet  clear 
Spanish  like  an  organ  swells 
Italian  rings  its  silver  bells 
France  with  many  a  frolic  mien 
Tunes  her  sprightly  violin 

Loud  the  German  rolls  his  drum 
When  Russia's  clashing  cymbals  come 
But  Britain's  sons  may  well  rejoice 
For  English  is  the  human  voice. 

20.  Having  the  king  in  my  hands  Cromwell  de- 
clared in  1647  I  have  the  Parliament  in  my  pocket 

21.  Lincoln  who  had  been  chosen  president  went 
to  Washington  to  be  inaugurated. 

22.  A  man  is  rich  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
things  which  he  can  afford  to  let  alone. 

23.  In  the  lexicon  of  youth  which  fate  reserves 
for  a  bright  manhood  there's  no  such  word  as  fail. 

24.  In  manuscript  words  to  be  italicized  are  un- 
derlined once  to  be  printed  in  small  capitals  twice 
in  large  capitals  three  times. 

25.  The  careful  writer  is  sparing  in  his  use  of 
italics  to  denote  emphasis  not  every  word  that  re- 
ceives stress  from  the  voice  in  oral  delivery  should 
be  italicized. 

26.  Water  which  is  oxygen  and  hydrogen  united 
is  essential  to  life. 


PUNCTUATION  137 

27.  Daily  we  verify  this  saying  Man's  extremity 
is  God's  opportunity. 

28.  Affectation  which  is  the  desire  of  seeming  to 
be  what  we  are  not  is  the  besetting  sin  of  men. 

29.  Agesilaus  the  Great  hearing  one  praise  an 
orator  who  had  the  power  of  magnifying  little  things 
said  I  do  not  like  a  shoemaker  who  puts  large  shoes 
on  small  feet. 

30.  The  Nibelungenlied  the  great  epic  of  Ger- 
many dates  in  all  probability  back  to  1200. 

31.  The  Puritans  recognized  no  title  of  superiority 
but  the  favor  of  God  and  confident  of  that  favor  they 
despised  all  the  accomplishments  and  all  the  digni- 
ties of  the  world. 

32.  Idleness  is  emptiness  the  tree  in  which  the 
sap  is  stagnant  remains  fruitless. 

33.  He  had  to  choose  one  of  three  things  wealth 
but  wealth  gained  dishonestly  fame  but  fame  un- 
justly acquired  or  poverty  with  honor  and  happiness. 

34.  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  How  noble  in 
reason  how  infinite  in  faculty  in  form  and  moving 
how  express  and  admirable  in  action,  how  like  an 
angel  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god 

35  The  best  thing  to  give  to  your  enemy  is  for- 
giveness to  an  opponent  tolerance  ...  to  your 
child  a  good  example  to  a  father  deference  to  your 
mother  that  which  will  gladden  her  heart  to  your- 
self respect  to  all  men  charity." 

36.  In  describing  the  vast  influence  of  a  perfect 
orator  over  the  feelings  and  passions  of  his  audi- 


138  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

ence  Sheridan  forcibly  says  Notwithstanding  the 
diversity  of  minds  in  such  a  multitude  by  the  light- 
ning of  eloquence  they  are  melted  into  one  mass  the 
whole  assembly  actuated  in  one  and  the  same  way 
become  as  it  were  but  one  man  and  have  but  one 
voice.  The  universal  cry  is  Let  us  march  against 
Philip  let  us  fight  for  our  liberties  let  us  conquer 
or  die. 

37.  He  sometimes  counsel  takes  and  sometimes 
snuff. 

38.  The  pages  of  history  how  is  it  that  they  are 
so  sad. 

39.  Gold  what  can  it  not  do  and  undo 

40.  For  he  that  soweth  to  his  flesh  shall  of  the 
flesh  reap  corruption  but  he  that  soweth  to  the 
Spirit  shall  of  the  Spirit  reap  life  everlasting 

41.  Finally  brethren  whatsoever  things  are  true 
whatsoever  things  are  honest  whatsoever  things  are 
just  whatsoever  things  are  pure  whatsoever  things 
are  lovely  whatsoever  things  are  of  good  report  if 
there  be  any  virtue  and  if  there  be  any  praise  think 
on  these  things 

EXERCISE  XVII 

Justify  the  punctuation  of  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Falsehood  is  in  a  hurry;  it  may  be  at  any 
moment  detected  and  punished :  truth  is  calm,  se- 
rene; its  judgment  is  on  high;  its  king  cometh  out 
of  the  chambers  of  eternity. 


PUNCTUATION  139 

2.  Every  one  wishes  to  have  truth  on  his  side, 
but  it  is  not  every  one  that  sincerely  wishes  to  be 
on  the  side  of  truth. 

3.  St.  Edmund  of  Canterbury  was  right  when 
he  said  to  some  one,  "Work  as  though  you  would 
live  forever;  live  as  though  you  would  die  to-day." 

4.  Drummond  once  wrote:  "There  is  a  disease 
called  'touchiness' — a  disease  which,  in  spite  of  its 
innocent  name,  is  one  of  the  gravest  sources  of  rest- 
lessness in  the  world." 

5.  If  you  once  ask  the  devil  to  dinner,  it  will 
be  hard  to  get  him  out  of  the  house  again;  better 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  him. 

6.  If  you  want  to  sleep  soundly,  buy  a  bed  of  a 
man  who  is  in  debt;  surely  it  must  be  a  very  soft 
one,  or  he  never  could  have  rested  so  easy  on  it. 

7.  Cast  forth  thy  act,  thy  word,  into  the  ever- 
living,  ever- working  universe;  it  is  a  seed-grain 
that  can  not  die;  unnoticed  to-day,  it  will  be  found 
flourishing  as  a  banyan  grove;  perhaps,  alas,  as 
a  hemlock  forest,  after  a  thousand  years. 

8.  Education  is  a  companion  which  no  misfor- 
tune can  depress,  no  crime  destroy,  no  enemy  alien- 
ate, no  despotism  enslave.  At  home,  a  friend; 
abroad,  an  introduction;  in  solitude,  a  solace;  and 
in  society,  an  ornament.  Without  it,  what  is  man? 
— a  splendid  slave,  a  reasoning  savage. 

9.  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years;  in  thoughts,  not 

breaths ; 
In  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial. 


140  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

We  should  count  time  by  heart-throbs:   he 
most  lives 
Who  thinks  most,  feels  the  noblest,  acts  the 
best. 

10.  Caesar  had  his  Brutus;  Charles  the  First,  his 
Cromwell;  and  George  the  Third  ["Treason!"  cried 
the  Speaker] — may  profit  by  their  example.  If  this 
be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it. 

11.  As  long  as  he  [William  the  Silent]  lived,  he 
was  the  guiding-star  of  a  whole  brave  nation;  and 
when  he  died,  the  little  children  cried  in  the  streets. 

12.  A  course  in  composition  should  accomplish 
two  results:  it  should  enable  the  pupil  to  make  his 
thoughts  clear  to  others,  and  it  should  develop  his 
appreciation  of  good  literature. 

13.  Stand!  the  ground's  your  own,  my  braves! 
Will  ye  give  it  up  to  slaves  ? 

Will  ye  look  for  greener  graves? 

Hope  ye  mercy  still? 
What's  the  mercy  despots  feel? 
Hear  it  in  that  battle  peal! 
Read  it  on  yon  bristling  steel! 
Ask  it,  ye  who  will! 

14.  Ay,  call  it  holy  ground, 

The  soil  where  first  they  trod ; 
They   have   left   unstained   what   there   they 
found, — 
Freedom  to  worship  God. 

— Felicia  Hemans. 


PART  THREE 


Letter-Writing 

Being  the  most  useful  of  the  several  kinds  of 
composition,  letter-writing  should  be — if  there  is  any 
difference — the  most  thoroughly  mastered.  Not 
every  person  can  reasonably  aspire  to  write  essays 
or  books  for  the  general  reader,  but  every  person 
writes  letters.  What  one  needs  to  do  so  often,  one 
should  learn  to  do  well.  Only  one  letter  in  a  hundred 
would,  perhaps,  be  adjudged  a  model  letter  in  both 
form  and  matter.  At  least  the  mechanical  requisites 
of  a  good  letter  should  be  mastered  by  every  pupil. 

Kinds  of  Letters. — There  are  two  general  classes 
of  letters :  Informal  or  private,  and  formal  or  busi- 
ness letters.  A  good  business  letter  is  clear,  cour- 
teous, and  brief.  Its  language  is  definite.  It  con- 
veys its  meaning  in  the  fewest  words  consistent  with 
ordinary  politeness.  It  observes  the  best  forms  of 
address  and  signature.  It  is  free  from  brusque  re- 
marks and  curt  abbreviations.  It  contains  nothing 
personal  or  irrelevant. 

Very  different,  however,  are  the  tone  and  manner 
of  a  personal  or  social  letter.  Professor  Meiklejohn 
writes : 

"In  private  letter-writing  let  yourself  go  a  little — 
be  entirely  natural.  Remember  that  you  are  not 
writing  in  an  examination-room.    This  of  itself  will 

(141) 


142  ESSENTIALS   OF  ENGLISH 

probably  cause  you  to  write  in  a  natural  style.  Noth- 
ing is  so  tiresome,  nothing  gives  so  little  pleasure 
to  receive,  as  a  'composition'  letter.  In  private 
letters  anything  like  a  formal  style  is  disagreeable; 
indeed,  much  more  laxity  of  expression — even  to 
colloquialism — is  both  admissible  and  pleasant.  If 
you  are  writing  to  a  friend,  write  to  him  as  you 
would  talk  to  him,  and  not  as  if  the  eye  of  the  ex- 
aminer were  always  upon  you." 

To  impart  to  a  social  letter  the  tone  that  repre- 
sents exactly  the  relation  between  the  two  persons 
is  not  an  easy  task.  The  nicest  tact  is  necessary 
to  insure  the  writer  against  being  too  stiff  on  the 
one  hand  or  too  familiar  on  the  other. 

Parts  of  a  Letter. — The  conventional  letter  con- 
sists, as  to  form,  of  seven  parts:  the  Heading,  the 
Address,  the  Salutation,  the  Body  or  letter  proper, 
the  Complimentary  Close  or  leave-taking,  the  Signa- 
ture, and  the  Superscription,  or  what  is  written  on 
the  envelope. 

By  the  Heading  of  a  letter  is  meant  the  name  of 
the  place  at  which  the  letter  is  written,  and  the 
date.  If  a  letter  is  written  in  a  city,  the  door  num- 
ber, the  name  of  the  street,  the  name  of  the  city, 
and  the  name  of  the  State  should  be  clearly  given. 
If  the  writer  is  staying  at  a  hotel  or  at  a  school, 
or  at  any  well-known  institution,  its  name  takes  the 
place  of  that  of  the  street  and  the  number,  as  may 
also  the  number  of  your  post-office  box.  If  the  letter 
is  written  at  a  village  or  other  country  place,  the 


LETTER-WRITING  143 

name  of  the  county,  as  well  as  that  of  the  post- 
office  and  that  of  the  State,  should  be  given. 

Begin  the  heading  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  edge  of  the  paper.  The  heading  should  be 
well  toward  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  page.  When 
it  occupies  more  than  one  line,  the  second  line  should 
begin  a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  first,  and 
the  third  a  little  farther  than  the  second.  The  date 
always  comes  last,  and  should  never  be  omitted. 
But  the  rest  of  the  heading — the  place — need  not 
be  given  in  full,  if  the  one  to  whom  the  letter  is 
written  knows  perfectly  well  where  the  sender  lives. 
In  social  correspondence,  but  never  in  a  business 
letter,  the  name  of  the  place  and  the  date  may  be 
placed  below  the  signature,  toward  the  left  edge  of 
the  page.  As  a  rule,  each  item  of  the  heading  is 
set  off  by  a  comma.  But  some  of  the  present-day 
authorities  use  the  marks  of  punctuation  more  spar- 
ingly. For  example,  Mr.  Alfred  M.  Hitchcock,  wrote 
in  1906,  regarding  the  punctuating  of  the  heading 
of  a  letter: 

"Note  that  where  two  or  more  items  are  in  the 
same  line  they  are  separated  by  the  comma,  but 
that  no  comma  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  and 
no  periods  are  used  except  after  abbreviations.  In 
other  words,  punctuation  marks  are  placed  only 
where  they  are  actually  needed.,, 

He  then  gives  this  example : 

158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Oct.  25,  1904 

10 


144  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Most  authorities  would  insert  a  comma  after  the 
period  following  the  abbreviation  Conn.,  and  a  period 
after  1901+.  At  any  rate,  both  methods  are  correct. 
The  taste  of  the  writer  must  determine  which 
method  he  shall  adopt. 

The  following  headings  illustrate  both  methods: 

Sunbury,  Pa.,  July  8,  1907. 

Cloverdale,  Sonoma  Co.,  Cal. 

June  28,  1907 

Normal  School,  Chico,  Cal., 

August  2,  1907. 

257  South  Hill  St. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Aug.  15,  1907 

The  Address  consists  of  two  parts:  (1)  The  name 
and  title  of  the  person  addressed;  (2)  the  name  of 
the  place  to  which  the  letter  is  to  be  sent.  The  ad- 
dress begins  about  half  an  inch  from  the  left  edge 
of  the  paper,  and  may  occupy  one,  two,  or  three 
lines  just  below  the  heading,  symmetrically  arranged. 

Except  in  business  letters  the  address  is  some- 
times put  near  the  left  margin  on  the  line  below 
the  signature.  In  familiar  letters  the  address  is 
usually  omitted. 

The  Salutation  should  come  a  space  below  the 


LETTER-WRITING  145 

address,  in  a  business  letter;  in  social  letters  when 
the  address  is  omitted,  it  comes  a  space  or  two  below 
the  heading.  It  begins,  in  either  case,  near  the  left 
margin.  The  salutation  is  usually  followed  by  a 
colon,  or,  less  commonly,  by  a  comma  and  a  dash. 
What  the  salutation  should  be  varies  with  circum- 
stances. Dear  Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  Sir,  Dear  Sirs,  Sirs, 
Gentlemen,  Dear  Madam,  My  dear  Madam,  and 
Mesdames,  are  used  in  business  correspondence,  and 
in  letters  to  strangers  or  to  those  with  whom  the 
sender  is  not  intimately  acquainted.  Dear  Madam 
is  the  proper  salutation  in  a  letter  to  a  married  or 
to  an  unmarried  woman  with  whom  one  is  not  ac- 
quainted ;  but  it  is  also  proper  to  write  My  dear  Miss 
Blank.  In  social  correspondence  one  may  use  My 
dear  Mr.  Blank,  My  dear  Mrs.  Blank,  and  My  dear 
Miss  Blank. 

In  familiar,  or  friendly  letters,  a  wide  range  of 
salutations  are  permissible;  as,  Dear  Henry,  My 
dear  Arthur,  Dear  Margaret,  My  dear  Kate,  Dear 
Friend,  Dear  Cousin,  Dear  Uncle,  My  dear  Boy, 
My  dear  Wife,  and  so  forth. 

The  following  forms  of  address  and  salutation 
should  be  studied  with  special  regard  to  punctuation 
and  the  use  of  capitals: 

Miss  Mary  F.  Smith, 

235  Clark  St.,  Chicago. 
Dear  Madam, — 

Please  accept  my  thanks,  etc. 


146  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Miss  Mary  F.  Smith, 
235  Clark  St., 
Chicago,  III. 
Dear  Madam: 

Please,  etc. 

Messrs.  J.  Scott  &  Co., 
181  State  St., 
Boston,  Mass. 
Dear  Sirs: 

The  Century  Co., 

Union  Square,  New  York. 
Gentlemen, — Enclosed  please  find  my,  etc. 

Messrs.  Dempsey  &  Carroll, 

Art  Stationers, 

26  West  23d  Street,  K<  w  York  City. 
Gentlemen, — Will  you  kindly  send  me,  etc. 

To  His  Honor,  the  Mayor  of  New  York. 
Sir, — May  I  ask  the  favor  of  your  kind,  etc. 

The  complimentary  close,  or  leave  taking,  should 
be  placed  a  space  below  the  body  of  the  letter.  Its 
position  varies  slightly,  according  to  its  length. 
As  a  rule,  it  should  begin  about  half  way  between 
the  right  and  left  edges  of  the  paper;  and,  if  occu- 
pying two  or  more  lines,  should  slope  to  the  right, 
like  the  address.  It  is  separated  from  the  signature 
by  a  comma.  Each  line  of  the  complimentary  close 
should  begin  with  a  capital.    In  business  letters,  in 


LETTER-WRITING  147 

letters  to  strangers  or  to  superiors,  it  may  be,  Yours 
truly,  Very  truly  yours,  Respectfully  yours,  Sincerely 
yours,  Yours  sincerely,  or  Very  sincerely  yours.  In 
letters  of  friendship  or  of  affection  more  endearing 
terms  may  be  used;  as,  Your  sincere  friend,  Your 
loving  daughter,  Your  affectionate  mother,  Yours 
cordially,  Sincerely  and  gratefully  yours,  Yours  with 
love,  With  kindest  regards,  ever  your  friend,  and 
so  on. 

In  an  ordinary  business  letter  it  is  always  safe 
to  use  Yours  truly,  or  Very  truly  yours.  The  forms 
with  sincerely  are  more  intimate  and  less  formal. 
Unless  special  respect  is  intended,  Respectfully 
yours  should  not  be  used.  It  is  the  proper  form 
when  writing  to  a  high  official  or  to  a  person  much 
older  than  oneself. 

Note  carefully  how  capitals  are  used  in  the  com- 
plimentary leave-taking. 

The  signature  comes  a  space  below  the  compli- 
mentary close,  and  toward  the  right  edge  of  the 
paper.  The  signature  should  be  so  written  as  to 
enable  the  person  addressed  to  know  at  once  the 
proper  title  to  use  in  answer.  When  writing  to  a 
stranger,  a  woman  should  prefix  to  her  signature, 
her  title,  Miss  or  Mrs.,  enclosed  within  brackets  or 
curves  of  parenthesis;  or,  if  she  prefers,  she  may 
write  below  and  to  the  left  of  her  signature,  Please 
address  Miss  Blanche  Andrews.  A  man,  when  writ- 
ing to  a  stranger  should  write  his  first  name  in  full. 


148  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

J.  M.  Smith  might  mean  Joseph  M.  Smith,  Mrs. 
Jane  M.  Smith,  or  Miss  Julia  M.  Smith. 

Notice  the  capitals,  the  punctuation,  and  the  form 
of  the  following  models : 

Yours  with  sincere  esteem, 
Walter  J.  Otis. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
William  T.  Wallace. 

I  am  very  sincerely, 

Your  friend, 
Paul  E.  Everett. 

Sincerely  and  gratefully  yours, 
Henry  K.  Davis. 

Yours  truly, 

Thomas  R.  Brooks. 

Respectfully  yours, 
[Miss]  Maude  E.  Benton. 

The  superscription  includes  the  items  that  are 
written  upon  the  envelope.  It  is  arranged  in  either 
three  or  four  lines.  The  first  line — the  name  and 
title — is  usually  written  across  the  middle  of  the 
envelope.  The  lines  are  so  arranged  as  to  cause  each 
one  to  begin  farther  to  the  right  than  the  preceding 
one,  bringing  the  name  of  the  state  near  the  lower 
right-hand  corner.     As  the  outside  of  the  envelope 


LETTER-WRITING  149 

first  attracts  the  eye  of  the  receiver  of  a  letter,  and, 
in  a  way,  introduces  the  writer,  the  superscription 
should  be  as  neat  and  distinct  as  possible.  All  flour- 
ishes, all  conceits  of  fancy,  should  be  avoided.  It  is 
not  in  good  taste  to  write  messages  on  the  envelope ; 
as,  "In  haste,"  "Deliver  at  once,"  "Important,"  etc. 
The  sign  ^  for  "in  care  of,"  and  the  symbol  #  for 
the  word  "number,"  have  long  ago  been  discarded. 

The  writers  of  the  old  school  insisted  that  a  comma 
should  end  every  line  in  the  superscription  but  the 
last.  This  rule  is  no  longer  observed.  A  period 
should  of  course  follow  an  abbreviation.  No  other 
punctuation  is  needed. 

The  proper  arrangement  of  the  superscription 
varies  somewhat  with  the  shape  of  the  envelope. 
Observe  the  following  examples : 


Mr.  Henry  F.  Watts 

429  Delmas  Ave. 
San  Jose 

California 


150 


ESSENTIALS   OF  ENGLISH 


Mrs.  Marie  Alton 

421  Spangler  Ave. 
Philadelphia 
Pennsylvania 


The  abbreviated  forms  of  state  names  must  be 
written  with  unmistakable  distinctness.  It  is  easy 
in  careless  writing  to  confound  Cat,  and  Col.;  Pa. 
and  Va.  and  La.;  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.;  Mass  and  Miss.; 
Penn.  and  Tenn.;  Me.  and  Mo.;  and  so  on.  It  is 
both  safe,  and  in  good  taste,  to  write  the  name  of 
the  State  in  full. 

The  stamp  should  be  placed  near  the  upper  right- 
hand  corner  of  the  envelope,  not  only  for  the  sake 
of  neatness,  but  also  for  the  convenience  of  the  post- 
office  clerk. 

Titles. — Titles  must  be  used  with  discrimina- 
tion. Prefix  Mr.  to  a  man's  name,  when  no  other 
title  has  displaced  Mr.;  Messrs.  to  the  names  of 
two  or  more  men  addressed  jointly;  Master  to  the 
name  of  a  boy;  Miss  to  the  name  of  a  girl  or  un- 
married woman;  Misses  or  The  Misses  to  the  name 
of  two  or  more  unmarried  women  addressed  jointly; 


LETTER-WRITING  151 

Mrs.  to  the  name  of  a  married  woman  or  a  widow ; 
Dr.  (plural  Drs.)  to  the  name  of  a  physician;  Rev. 
or  The  Rev.  is  usually  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  cler- 
gyman, or  The  Rev.  Mr.,  if  his  first  name  is  not 
known  to  the  writer;  or  Rev.  before  the  name  and 
D.  D.  after,  if  he  is  a  doctor  of  divinity.  Bishops 
of  the  Episcopol  or  of  the  Catholic  church  are  ad- 
dressed The  Right  Rev.,  and  archbishops,  The  Most 
Rev.  The  bishops  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church 
prefer  the  simpler  title  of  Rev. 

Esq.  is  added  to  the  name  of  a  lawyer,  of  a  justice 
of  the  peace,  of  a  notary  public,  and  sometimes  to 
men  of  more  than  ordinary  social  standing.  In 
England  it  is  accorded  to  all  untitled  owners  of 
landed  estates,  barristers  at  law,  mayors,  commis- 
sioned officers  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  profes- 
sional men.  Esq.  and  Mr.  should  never  be  applied 
to  the  same  name  at  the  same  time.  The  Hon.  or 
Hon.  (preferably  the  former)  is  prefixed  to  the  name 
of  a  Cabinet  officer,  a  member  of  Congress,  a  State 
Senator,  a  Law  Judge,  or  a  Mayor.  Prefix  His 
Excellency  to  the  name  of  a  Governor  or  of  an  Am- 
bassador; as,  "To  His  Excellency  the  Governor  of 
Ohio,"  or  simply,  "To  His  Excellency  the  Governor." 
In  conversation,  the  President  is  addressed  as  "Mr. 
President;"  by  foreigners,   as   "Your  Excellency." 

In  writing,  the  form  of  salutation  is,  "Mr.  Presi- 
dent, Sir;"  or,  "To  His  Excellency  the  President  of 
the  United  States."  The  complimentary  close  may 
vary ;  thus,  "I  am,  sir,  your  most  obedient  servant ;" 


152  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

"I  am  most  respectfully  yours;"  "I  have  the  honor 
to  be  your  Excellency's  most  obedient  servant,"  etc. 
The  superscription  should  be — 


Or, 


Or, 


To  the  President, 

The  White  House, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

To  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

To  His  Excellency, 

The  President  of  the  United  States, 
The  White  House, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

The  members  of  the  Cabinet  are  addressed  by 
their  official  titles,  with  that  of  Honorable  prefixed ; 
as  — 

To  the  Honorable,  the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  adding  of  the  surname  would  be  superfluous, 
as  there  is  but  one  Secretary  at  the  same  time.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  President.  An  invitation  from  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet  would  begin, — 

The  Secretary  of  State  and  Mrs.  Root  request 
the  honor  of,  etc. 

The  Vice-President  is  addressed  as,  "Mr.  Vice- 
President,  Sir;"  the  Chief  Justice  as,  "Mr.  Chief 
Justice,  Sir." 


LETTER-WRITING  153 

An  associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  ad- 
dressed simply  as,  "Mr.  Justice,"  with  the  surname 
added;  thus,  "Mr.  Justice  Gray."  The  form  of  the 
superscription  is  — 

To  The  Hon.  Joseph  McKenna, 
Justice  of  Supreme  Court, 
United  States, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

The  Head  of  the  Army  is  addressed  thus : 

To  Major-General  Nelson  A  Miles, 
Commanding  Officer, 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Or, 

To  Major-General  Nelson  A.  Miles, 
Commanding  the  Army  of  the  U.  S., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

The  salutation  commonly  employed  in  addressing 
the  President,  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  an  officer 
in  the  Army  or  Navy,  is  simply  Sir.  If  the  writer 
is  on  intimate  terms  with  such  officer,  he  may  write, 
Dear  Sir,  or  Dear  General. 

The  Pope  is  addressed  (except  by  those  whose  con- 
sciences protest)  as  — 

His  Holiness  the  Pope. 
Or, 

To  Our  Most  Holy  Father, 
Pope  Pius  X. 


154  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

The  salutation:  "Most  Holy  Father,"  or  "Your 
Holiness." 

A  Cardinal  is  addressed  as — 

His  Eminence  Cardinal  Gibbons. 

Or, 

To  His  Eminence  the  Most  Reverend  Cardinal  Gib- 
bons. 

The  salutation  is:  "Your  Eminence,"  or  "Most 
Eminent  and  Most  Reverend  Sir." 

Scholastic  degrees  are  nearly  always  abbreviated. 
Except  in  college  calendars  and  catalogues,  more 
than  one  such  degree  is  not  usually  written.  If 
Professor  Blank  is  the  proud  possessor  of  M.  S., 
A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  etc.,  it  would  hardly 
be  in  good  taste  to  string  them  out  on  the  back  of 
an  envelope.  The  highest  alone  should  be  given, 
which,  is,  of  course,  the  last  received.  That  usually 
implies  the  others.    Thus: 

Prof.  John  Blank,  LL.  D.,  or 
Dr.  John  Blank,  F.  R.  S. 

In  addressing  the  President  of  an  institution,  his 
official  title  should  be  given  after  the  name ;  as — 

To  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  LL.  D., 

President  of  University  of  California. 

To  James  R.  Parker, 

President  First  National  Bank. 


LETTER-WRITING  155 

Invitations  and  Replies. — Invitations  and  re- 
plies are  classified  as  formal  and  informal.  The  tone 
and  style  of  informal  invitation  or  reply  are  deter- 
mined by  the  state  and  judgment  of  the  writer.  The 
style  of  a  formal  note  or  invitation  is  governed  by 
the  comparatively  fixed  rules  of  social  etiquette.  A 
formal  invitation  is  always  in  the  third  person.  It- 
has  no  heading,  no  salutation,  and  no  complimentary 
close.  As  the  writer's  name  appears  in  the  body  of 
the  invitation,  no  signature  is  called  for.  The  day 
of  the  month  is  usually  written  out  in  full,  and  the 
year  omitted. 

A  formal  reply  follows  the^ style  of  the  invitation, 
and  is  therefore  in  the  third  person.  A  reply, 
whether  formal  or  informal,  should  repeat  the  date 
and  hour  given  in  the  invitation,  to  prevent  mistake. 
That  the  host  or  hostess  may  know  how  many  guests 
to  expect,  the  reply  should  in  every  case  be  sent  at 
once. 

The  form  and  style  of  invitations  and  replies  can 
be  learned  most  easily  by  examining  the  following 
models : 

(Formal  invitation.) 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur  J.  Phelps  request  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  company  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thomas  Scott 
at  dinner  on  Thursday  evening,  October  eighth,  at 
six  o'clock. 

357  Spring  Street. 


156  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

(Formal  reply  accepting.) 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thomas  Scott  accept  with  pleasure 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur  J.  Phelps's  kind  invitation  for 
Thursday  evening,  October  eighth,  at  six  o'clock. 

19  Walnut  Street, 
October  fifth. 

(Formal  reply,  declining.) 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Thomas  Scott  regret  that,  owing 
to  sickness  in  the  family,  they  are  unable  to  accept 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Arthur  J.  Phelps's  kind  invitation  for 
Thursday  evening,  October  eighth. 

19  Walnut  Street, 
October  fifth. 

(Formal  invitation  to  "meet  a  guest.) 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Harry  R.  Peck  invite  Mr.  Charles 
E.  Piatt  to  meet  their  guest,  Dr.  Francis  I.  Hippie, 
on  Thursday  evening,  July  eleventh,  at  eight  o'clock. 

233  Post  Street, 
July  seventh. 

(Formal  reply,  accepting.) 

Mr.  Charles  E.  Piatt  accepts  with  pleasure  the 
very  kind  invitation  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Harry  R.  Peck 
to  meet  their  guest,  Dr.  Francis  I.  Hippie,  on  Thurs- 
day evening,  July  eleventh,  at  eight  o'clock. 

683  Van  Dyke  Avenue, 
July  eighth. 


LETTER-WRITING  157 

(Informal  invitation.) 

My  dear  Miss  Elliott: 

If  you  have  no  engagement  on 
Wednesday  evening,  May  tenth,  may  we  hope  that 
you  will  give  the  pleasure  of  dining  with  us  quite 
informally  at  seven? 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Margaret  Lawrence. 
Friday,  May  fifth. 


(Informal  reply,  accepting.) 

My  dear  Miss  Lawrence: 

It  will  be  a  great  pleasure  to  dine 
with  you  Wednesday,  May  tenth.     How  thoughtful 
you  were  to  remember  that  the  absence  of  father 
and  mother  from  home  would  leave  me  alone. 
Very  sincerely  yours, 

Josephine  Elliott. 
Monday,  May  eighth. 

(Informal  invitation,  general.) 

Dear  Stella: 

May  we  count  on  you  for  Tuesday  evening 
at  eight?  Dick  will  play  for  us,  and  that  is  always 
such  a  treat.     Do  come. 

Affectionately  yours, 

Pearl. 
Friday,  November  fifteenth. 


158  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS 

1.  When  two  pages  of  correspondence  paper  suf- 
fice for  a  letter,  write  on  the  first  and  third  pages. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  use  all  the  pages,  they  should 
be  filled  consecutively. 

2.  The  closing  words  of  a  letter  should  never  be 
written  in  the  margins  or  across  the  top  of  a  page. 
No  part  of  a  letter  should  be  written  in  vertical 
lines.  Such  eccentricities  are  always  in  bad  taste. 
"Good  breeding  and  refinement  are  rarely  expressed 
in  extremes  of  any  kind." 

3.  Only  the  best  quality  of  unruled  paper  should 
be  used  in  social  correspondence.  There  is  no  paper 
in  better  taste  or  of  more  enduring  fashion  than  the 
plain  white  or  the  delicate  tints  of  ivory  or  cream. 
Only  black  ink  of  good  quality  should  be  used. 

4.  Such  contractions  as  rec'd,  y'rs,  afjJ  yours, 
resp'ly,  &  (for  and),  Dear  Doc.  (for  Doctor),  Dear 
Prof,  (for  Professor),  and  so  on,  are  not  admissible. 

5.  Very  seldom  should  a  letter  be  called  a  "favor." 
"Come  to  hand"  is  a  locution  of  questionable  taste. 
Avoid  the  hackneyed  phrase,  "Hoping  this  will  find 
you,  as  it  leaves  me,  in  good  health."  Do  not  begin 
with  "As  I  am  at  leisure,  I  thought  I  would  write 
you  a  few  lines,"  etc. 

6.  Though  one  should  not  be  punctilious  in  avoid- 
ing the  pronoun  /,  it  should  be  used  sparingly.  Its 
very  frequent  use  savors  of  egotism.  The  passive 
voice  of  the  verb  is  helpful  in  this. 

7.  For  each  new  topic  begin  a  new  paragraph. 


LETTER-WRITING  159 

8.  Do  not  underline  words  and  sentences  for  em- 
phasis, nor  indulge  in  apologies  and  long  prefaces 
of  explanation. 

9.  When  writing  a  letter  of  request  to  a  mere 
acquaintance,  or  to  a  stranger,  it  is  good  form  to  en- 
close a  postage  stamp.  We  should  not  impose  any 
pecuniary  obligation  upon  a  stranger. 

10.  The  letters  st,  th,  or  nd,  after  ordinal  numer- 
als, are  omitted  in  headings,  addresses,  or  super- 
scriptions. 

11.  Invitations  to  dinner  or  luncheon  require  im- 
mediate answers;  but  invitations  to  weddings,  re- 
ceptions, and  evening  entertainments  require  no 
answer  in  acceptance,  unless  an  answer  has  been  re- 
quested. Written  regrets  may  be  sent  within  three 
or  four  days  after  the  receipt  of  the  invitation.  The 
answer  is  always  addressed  to  the  person  in  whose 
name  the  invitation  is  given. 

12.  An  invitation  should  not  be  answered  on  a 
visiting  card  or  on  a  postal  card,  nor  on  business 
paper  or  on  a  half  sheet  of  note  paper. 

13.  When  an  invitation  is  given  in  the  name  of 
both  husband  and  wife,  the  answer  should  contain 
an  allusion  to  each;  but  the  envelope  should  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  wife  alone. 

14.  The  words  "Present,"  "Addressed,"  or  "En 
Ville,"  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  envelope.  It 
is  a  custom  no  longer  observed. 

15.  An  occasion  for  a  postscript  (P.  S.)  should  be 
avoided. 

ii 


160  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

16.  It  is  not  good  form  to  begin  a  sentence  with- 
out a  subject;  as,  "Have  just  returned  from,"  etc., 
or,  "Would  be  glad  to  meet,"  etc. 

17.  "Avoid  flourishes  and  peculiar  and  striking 
capitals  in  the  signature.  They  are  an  evidence  of 
vanity  and  vulgarity,  not  of  individuality  and  char- 
acter, as  is  sometimes  imagined." 

18.  Remember  that  written  words  may  sometimes 
become  very  unpleasant  witnesses.  It  is  ever  well 
that  thinking  precede  writing. 

19.  A  letter  of  introduction  or  of  recommendation 
should  not  be  sealed.  On  the  lower  left-hand  corner 
of  an  envelope  enclosing  a  letter  of  introduction 
should  be  written  the  word  Introducing,  with  the 
name  of  the  person  introduced. 

EXERCISE  I 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  do  the  following  re- 
quirements at  the  blackboard: 

1.  Write  proper  headings  for  letters  supposed  to 
be  written  from  the  following  places :  A  State  normal 
school;  a  village  in  Sonoma  County,  California;  the 
St.  Francis  Hotel  in  San  Francisco;  the  University 
of  Michigan ;  the  steamship  Paris  in  mid-ocean ;  235 
Euclid  Avenue  in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

2.  Write  the  introductory  and  concluding  parts 
of  letters  to  three  firms. 

3.  Direct  envelopes  to  the  following:  A  clergy- 
man in  Milwaukee,  a  lawyer  living  in  the  county- 
seat  of  your  own  county,  the  editor  of  a  local  paper, 


LETTER-WRITING  161 

the  principal  of  the  nearest  high  school,  a  physician 
living  in  a  Kansas  village,  the  mayor  of  a  large  city, 
your  uncle  who  is  staying  at  the  Auditorium  Hotel 
in  Chicago,  and  a  boy  of  ten  with  whom  you  are 
acquainted,  and  who  is  spending  the  winter  in  Hon- 
olulu. 

4.  Write  a  formal  invitation.  Write  two  replies, 
in  one  accepting,  in  the  other  declining,  the  invi- 
tation. 

EXERCISE  II 

1.  Your  friend  Albert  Fuller  writes  to  ask  you 
about  a  school  which  you  formerly  attended  and 
which  he  is  thinking  of  attending  next  year.  An- 
swer his  letter. 

2.  Your  friend  Irene  Jones  writes  to  ask  you 
about  a  school  that  you  have  attended,  and  which 
she  thinks  of  attending  next  year.  Answer  her 
letter. 

3.  You  have  a  cousin  who  lives  in  Nova  Scotia. 
You  live  in  Texas.  Write  to  him  (or  her)  about  the 
climate  and  the  chief  industries.  Tell  something 
respecting  your  school,  your  young  people's  clubs, 
and  your  amusements. 

4.  A  classmate  has  been  ill,  but  is  convalescent. 
Write  him  (or  her)  the  kind  of  letter  you  should  like 
to  get  if  you  were  in  his  place. 

5.  Write  to  your  friend  Charles  Dickson,  who 
lives  in  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  inviting  him  to  spend 
the  Christmas  holidays  with  you.     Tell  him  why 


162  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

you  think  he  would  enjoy  such  a  visit.    Your  parents 
join  in  the  invitation. 

6.  Write  to  a  Christian  friend,  and  recount  the 
work  done  by  your  young  people's  missionary  society 
during  the  last  three  months. 

7.  A  man  whom  you  know  wishes  to  buy  a  horse. 
Write  to  him,  offering  to  sell  him  your  horse.  De- 
scribe the  horse. 

8.  Write  to  the  publishers  of  The  World's  Work, 
requesting  them  to  send  the  magazine  to  your  school 
for  use  in  the  reference  library.  Enclose  a  money 
order  in  payment. 

9.  You  wish  to  buy  a  motorcycle.  Write  to  the 
nearest  agency,  asking  for  descriptions  of  the 
"makes"  which  they  represent,  with  prices. 

10.  You  are  a  student  in  a  Christian  college. 
Write  to  your  mother,  telling  her  why  you  enjoy 
the  daily  chapel  exercises. 

11.  Send  an  order  to  Henry  Holt  and  Company, 
for  ten  different  books  of  recent  issue.  Arrange  for 
payment. 

12.  You  are  a  teacher.  Write  to  a  young  friend, 
telling  him  (or  her)  why  you  think  he  should  make 
teaching  his  life's  work. 


PART  FOUR 


Principles  of  Effective  Composition 

SENTENCES 

Definition. — A  sentence  is  a  complete  thought 
verbally  expressed. 

"The  sentence  is  the  mold  into  which  all  our  think- 
ing is  run."  It  is  the  unit  of  thought  and  speech. 
All  speaking  and  writing  must  therefore  be  done  in 
sentences.  We  see,  then,  that  the  sentence  is  a 
tool  which  every  one  has  occasion  to  use;  and,  like 
other  tools,  it  is  used  to  little  purpose,  if  not  used 
well.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  skill  demands  its  price 
— long  and  painstaking  practice. 

The  grammatical  requisites  of  a  good  sentence 
have  been  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  "Applied 
Grammar."  But  there  are  other  considerations  that 
enter  into  the  making  of  sentences. 

Every  sentence  should  be  tested,  in  effect  by  the 
following  questions: 

a.  Have  the  words  been  so  chosen  and  arranged 
as  to  insure  clearness  of  expression. 

b.  Does  the  sentence  express  the  thought  with  due 
emphasis  or  force? 

c.  Does  it  contain  but  one  central  thought? 

d.  Could  the  sentence  be  made  to  affect  the  ear 
more  pleasantly? 

(163) 


164  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

e.  Is  it  concise? 

f.  Does  it  contain  all  needful  words? 

Kinds  of  Sentences. — As  to  quantity,  sentences 
are  long  or  short;  as  to  structure,  they  are  simple, 
compound  or  complex;  loose,  periodic,  or  balanced. 

In  the  writings  of  the  best  authors,  long  and 
short  sentences  are  duly  intermingled.  A  long  suc- 
cession of  sentences  of  nearly  the  same  length  is 
wearisome.  The  proportion  in  which  long  and  short 
sentences  should  be  combined  can  not,  however,  be 
determined  by  rule.  The  discretion  and  taste  of 
the  writer  must  determine  this  question.  He  must  be 
on  his  guard,  however,  to  keep  his  sentences  from 
running  to  extremes  on  either  side. 

Every  subject  of  discourse  contains  thoughts  that 
lend  themselves  naturally  to  short  sentences ;  others, 
to  long  sentences.  When  all,  or  nearly  all  the  sen- 
tences are  short  the  rhythm  is  impaired,  and  the 
style  becomes  flippant,  jerky,  abrupt,  and  the  reader 
experiences  a  sense  of  unsatisfiedness.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  long  sentences  largely  preponderate,  the 
style  becomes  lumbering  and  heavy,  and  interpre- 
tation more  difficult.  The  effect  produced  by  a  due 
proportion  of  short  sentences  is  to  give  to  a  passage 
lightness,  vivacity,  emphasis,  and  ease  of  apprehen- 
sion; a  due  proportion  of  long  sentences  gives  to  it 
dignity,  completeness,  rhythm,  and  cadence.  The 
feelings,  and  the  decisions  of  the  will  naturally  flow 
into  short  sentences;  weighty  and  complex  reason- 
ings, into  long  sentences. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  165 

A  succession  of  short  sentences  may  be  employed 
sometimes  for  a  special  kind  of  emphasis — "the  suc- 
cessive, condensed  assertions  being  like  so  many 
hammer  strokes."  The  following  illustration  is 
from  Macaulay: 

"We  have  had  laws.  We  have  had  blood.  New 
treasons  have  been  created.  The  press  has  been 
shackled.  The  habeas  corpus,  act  has  been  sus- 
pended. Public  meetings  have  been  prohibited.  The 
event  has  proved  that  these  expedients  were  mere 
palliatives.  You  are  at  the  end  of  your  palliatives. 
The  evil  remains.  It  is  more  formidable  than  ever. 
What  is  to  be  done?" 

It  should  be  remembered  that  brevity  is  not  op- 
posed to  many  words,  but  useless  words — to  verbi- 
age. A  writer  whose  sentences  are  generally  short, 
may  be  tautological  and  prolix;  another  whose  sen- 
tences are,  in  the  main,  long,  may  be  brief  and  force- 
ful. It  is  safer,  however,  for  writers  of  little  ex- 
perience to  couch  their  thoughts  in  sentences  com- 
paratively short.  It  requires  a  practiced  pen  to  con- 
struct a  long  sentence  that  is  at  the  same  time  clear 
and  consistent  throughout.  A  writer  must  grow  into 
long  sentences ;  but  he  needs  to  guard  against  grow- 
ing into  too  many. 

The  advantage  of  the  long  sentence  lies  in  the 
fact  that  by  it  we  are  enabled  to  state  in  the  same 
grammatical  unity — in  the  same  breath,  as  it  were — 
a  whole  thought  with  all  its  necessary  modifications. 
"One  can  also  get  by  it,"  Professor  Genung  says, 


166  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

"better  effects  of  sound  and  rhythm,  as  it  has  a  capa- 
bility of  flow  that  the  short  sentence  lacks."  He 
says  further:  "For  vigor  and  emphasis,  use  short 
sentences.  For  detail  and  rhythm,  use  long  sen- 
tences." In  the  words  of  Professor  A.  S.  Hill: 
"In  unbroken  succession,  long  sentences  fatigue  the 
eye  and  the  mind;  short  sentences  distract  them. 
The  skillful  writer  alternates  the  two,  using  the 
former  for  the  most  part  to  explain,  the  latter  to 
enforce  his  views." 

The  following  passage  from  Ruskin  illustrates 
the  value  of  the  long  sentence  for  expressing  a  com- 
plex thought  as  a  unit: 

"The  work  of  the  great  spirit  of  nature  is  as  deep 
and  unapproachable  in  the  lowest  as  in  the  noblest 
objects;  the  divine  mind  is  as  visible  in  its  full  en- 
ergy of  operation  on  every  lowly  bank  and  molder- 
ing  stone,  as  in  the  lifting  of  the  pillars  of  heaven 
and  settling  the  foundations  of  the  earth ;  and  to  the 
rightly-perceiving  mind  there  is  the  same  infinity, 
the  same  majesty,  the  same  power,  the  same  unity, 
and  the  same  perfection,  manifest  in  the  casting 
of  the  clay  as  in  the  scattering  of  the  cloud,  in  the 
moldering  of  the  dust  as  in  the  kindling  of  the  day- 
star." 

Loose,  Periodic,  and  Balanced  Sentences. — 
The  loose,  the  periodic,  and  the  balanced  structure  of 
sentences  afford  opportunity  not  only  to  secure  va- 
riety of  sentence  form,  but  also  to  enhance  the 
beauty  and  to  promote  the  energy  of  style. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  167 

Definition. — A  periodic  sentence  is  a  sentence  so 
constructed  as  to  keep  both  the  sense  and  the  gram- 
matical construction  incomplete  until  the  end  is 
reached;  as  — 

"Finally,  brethren,  whatsoever  things  are  true, 
whatsoever  things  are  honest,  whatsoever  things  are 
just,  whatsoever  things  are  pure,  whatsoever  things 
are  lovely,  whatsoever  things  are  of  good  report; 
if  there  be  any  virtue,  and  if  there  be  any  praise, 
think  on  these  things."    Phil.  4 :  8. 

Observe  that  this  sentence  would  not  express  a 
finished  thought  at  any  point  before  its  close. 

Definition. — A  loose  sentence  is  a  sentence  so 
constructed  as  to  express  a  complete  thought  at  one 
or  more  points  before  the  end  is  reached ;  as  — 

"Language  is  a  dead  letter  till  the  spirit  within 
the  poet  himself  breathes  through  it,  gives  it  voice, 
and  makes  it  audible  to  the  very  mind." 

Note  the  several  points  at  which  the  foregoing 
sentence  might  be  ended,  and  still  express  a  complete 
thought. 

At  what  points  could  the  following  loose  sentence 
be  brought  to  a  full  stop,  and  yet  embody  a  com- 
plete thought? 

"Milton's  nature  selected  and  drew  to  itself  what- 
ever was  great  and  good  from  the  parliament  and 
from  the  court,  from  the  conventicle  and  from  the 
cloister,  from  the  gloomy  and  sepulchral  circles  of 
the  Roundheads  and  from  the  Christmas  revel  of  the 
hospitable  Cavalier." 


168  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

In  a  loose  sentence  the  essential  idea  is  given  be- 
fore the  subordinate  elements  are  given.  It  is  easy 
in  most  cases  to  change  a  periodic  sentence  to  a  loose, 
and  a  loose  sentence  to  a  periodic.  For  example: 
"  Milton  always  selected  for  himself  the  boldest  lit- 
erary services,  that  he  might  shake  the  foundations 
of  debasing  sentiments  more  effectually/'  is  a  loose 
sentence.  By  giving  it  the  following  cast,  it  is  made 
periodic:  "That  he  might  shake  the  foundations  of 
debasing  sentiments  more  effectually,  Milton  always 
selected  for  himself  the  boldest  literary  services/' 

The  following  sentence,  "We  came  to  our  jour- 
ney's end,  at  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  after  much 
fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  weather,"  is 
loose.  By  giving  it  the  following  mold,  it  becomes 
periodic:  "At  last,  with  no  small  difficulty,  and  after 
much  fatigue,  we  came,  through  deep  roads  and  bad 
weather,  to  our  journey's  end." 

Again:  "His  actions  were  frequently  criticized, 
but  his  character  was  above  criticism,"  is  a  loose 
sentence.  By  changing  the  structure  as  follows,  it 
is  made  periodic:  "Though  his  actions  were  fre- 
quently criticized,  his  character  was  above  criti- 
cism." 

As  a  succession  of  related  thoughts  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  series  of  short  sentences,  or  in  a  series 
of  long  sentences,  or  in  sentences  which  are  now 
long,  now  short;  so,  too,  the  same  thoughts  may  be 
expressed  in  loose  or  in  periodic  sentences,  or  in  a 
combination  of  both.     Tho  essential  flexibility  and 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  169 

plasticity  of  sentences  make  it  easy  to  give  to  style 
the  "spice"  of  variety. 

It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  a  sentence  is 
not  always  wholly  loose  or  wholly  periodic.  The 
same  sentence,  especially  if  long,  may  begin  with  the 
periodic  structure  and  remain  so  to  a  certain  point, 
and  then  be  finished  in  the  loose  form.  The  follow- 
ing sentence  is  periodic  as  far  as  the  word  "beau- 
tiful/' and  loose  from  that  point  on: 

"Endowed  with  a  rare  purity  of  intellect,  a  classic 
beauty  of  expression,  a  yearning  tenderness  toward 
all  of  God's  creatures,  no  poet  appeals  more  tenderly 
than  Shelley  to  our  love  for  the  beautiful,  to  our 
respect  for  our  fellow  men,  to  our  heartfelt  charity 
for  human  weakness." 

A  sentence  that  combines  both  the  periodic  and 
the  loose  structure  is  called  by  some  authors  a  com- 
promise sentence. 

Each  of  these  two  classes  of  sentences  has  its 
advantages.  A  loose  sentence  is  not  necessarily  a 
bad  sentence.  It  is  a  type  of  structure  just  as  legit- 
imate and  just  as  susceptible  of  artistic  finish  as  the 
periodic.  In  perhaps  every  discourse  there  are  many 
more  loose  than  periodic  sentences.  Rarely  does  one 
find  more  than  two  successive  periodic  sentences, 
especially  if  the  sentences  are  long.  Periodic  sen- 
tences need  to  be  constantly  relieved  by  loose  ones. 

The  loose  structure  has  the  advantage  of  being 
more  natural,  easy,  and  colloquial  than  the  periodic. 
For  this  reason  it  is  especially  adapted  to  familiar 


170  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

kinds  of  discourse,  such  as  conversation,  letters,  and 
easy  narrative.  It  is  less  formal  and  artificial  than 
either  the  periodic  or  the  balanced  structure. 

If  used  to  excess,  however,  loose  sentences  give 
style  a  careless,  jagged  appearance.  Unless  loose 
sentences  are  constructed  with  great  care,  they  may 
become  a  mere  string  of  phrases  and  clauses,  with 
little  or  no  firmness  or  coherence.  There  is  danger, 
too,  when  many  loose  sentences  are  used  in  succes- 
sion, that  all  will  begin  in  the  same  way,  or  end  in 
the  same  way.  A  succession  of  loose  sentences 
should  exhibit  variety  of  structure. 

The  advantages  of  the  periodic  structure  are : 

a.  It  promotes  neatness  and  finish,  especially  when 
the  sentences  are  short. 

b.  It  gives  to  long  sentences  firmness,  dignity, 
and  impressiveness. 

c.  It  promotes  energy  of  expression,  since  all 
parts  of  the  sentence  are  made  to  look  to  one  point 
— the  close. 

d.  By  holding  the  significant  idea  in  reserve  until 
the  qualifying  details  are  disposed  of,  it  excites  the 
interest,  and  sustains  the  attention  of  the  reader  or 
hearer. 

e.  It  makes  easy  the  skillful  management  of  a 
large  number  of  subordinate  elements,  since  they  all 
must  be  arranged  with  reference  to  one  point — the 
paramount  idea. 

The  unpracticed  writer  needs  to  guard  himself 
against  the  temptation  to  run  too  many  of  his  sen- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  171 

tences  into  the  periodic  mold.  An  undue  number  of 
periods  gives  to  style  a  stiff,  formal,  artificial  effect. 
As  all  the  preliminary  details  of  a  period  must  be 
held  in  mind  until  the  key-word  is  reached,  it  is  easy 
to  make  the  number  of  such  details  too  large  to  be 
carried,  and  as  a  result  the  reader's  attention  is  not 
stimulated,  but  distracted.  When  the  details  are 
many,  the  compromise  form  is  always  at  hand  to 
help  out  the  writer.  This  period  from  the  Bible  is 
typical  as  to  length:  "He  that  spared  not  His  own 
Son,  but  delivered  Him  up  for  us  all,  how  shall  He 
not  with  Him  also  freely  give  us  all  things?" 

"Excessive  periodicity  is  stilted;  excessive  loose- 
ness is  slovenly.  The  best  style  is  that  which  adapts 
the  form  of  the  sentences  easily  and  spontaneously 
to  the  character  of  the  thought  expressed." 

EXERCISE  I 

Change  the  following  sentences  from  the  loose 
to  the  periodic  structure: 

1.  We  have  no  opportunity  to  make  money  or  to 
spend  money. 

2.  Why  should  he  disgrace  himself  and  his 
friends  by  getting  money  in  this  way,  when  he  could 
have  whatever  he  needed  by  asking  for  it? 

3.  You  must  act  promptly,  taking  the  risk  of  mis- 
take, or  else  you  must  perhaps  let  slip  the  only  op- 
portunity that  you  will  have  to  gain  your  object. 

4.  There  are  to  be  accommodations  for  a  larger 


172  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

attendance  at  the  next  football  game  than  ever  be- 
fore, I  hear. 

5.  The  number  of  subjects  to  be  taught  multi- 
plies, and  so  must  the  means  of  instruction  be  in- 
creased. 

6.  The  enemies  of  the  public  school  are  in  favor 
of  this  measure;  the  friends  of  the  school  are  op- 
posed to  it. 

7.  He  had  the  years  of  youth,  yet  he  had  the 
wisdom  of  age. 

8.  The  fire  swept  on,  and  with  its  advance  gained 
force  and  range,  and  left  in  ashes  the  town,  and  in 
terrible  desolation  the  surrounding  country  for  miles 
in  every  direction. 

9.  He  came  now  to  the  crisis  of  his  life,  strug- 
gled, fell  back,  got  courage  again,  made  another  vig- 
orous effort,  stood  firm  and  strong  against  the  heavy 
odds,  and  finally  conquered. 

10.  He  walks  rapidly  so  as  to  get  the  benefit  of 
the  exercise. 

11.  The  general  was  now  compelled  to  take  the 
defensive,  having  been  surprised  by  the  arrival  of 
fresh  troops  on  the  opposing  side. 

12.  I  should  urge  you  to  come  out  of  your  sick- 
room, get  the  strength  of  this  invigorating  air,  enjoy 
this  constant  sunshine,  and  know  again  what  it  is 
to  live,  if  you  were  here. 

13.  He  came  upon  me  suddenly,  so  that  I  had  no 
time  to  avoid  him  or  to  prepare  for  him. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  173 

14.  These  young  men  had  been  trained  at  home  to 
promptness,  diligence,  and  honesty;  and  so,  when 
thrown  upon  their  own  resources  in  this  new  coun- 
try, they  soon  showed  in  their  rise  to  wealth  and  in- 
fluence the  value  of  early  discipline. 

15.  He  spoke  eloquently,  and  so  won  over  the  jury 
to  his  side. 

16.  Rigorous  discipline  is  essential,  not  only  to 
success,  but  to  safety  in  the  army  and  the  navy. 

17.  She  has  a  sweet,  sympathetic  voice,  and  there- 
fore gives  pleasure  to  all  her  hearers  who  are  not 
critical. 

18.  It  is  impossible  for  a  new  man,  if  at  all  in- 
dolent, to  have  any  success  here,  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  openings,  the  close  competition,  and  the 
energy  of  the  native  inhabitants. 

19.  The  mind  is  crippled  and  contracted  by  per- 
petual attention  to  the  same  ideas;  just  as  any  act 
or  posture,  long  continued,  will  disfigure  the  limbs. 

20.  That  man,  I  think,  has  had  a  liberal  educa- 
tion who  has  been  so  trained  in  youth  that  his  body 
is  the  ready  servant  of  his  will,  and  does  with  ease 
and  pleasure  all  the  work  that,  as  a  mechanism,  it 
is  capable  of;  whose  intellect  is  a  clear,  cold,  logic 
engine,  with  all  its  parts  of  equal  strength,  and  in 
smooth  working  order;  ready,  like  a  steam  engine, 
to  be  turned  to  any  kind  of  work,  and  spin  the  gos- 
samers as  well  as  forge  the  anchors  of  the  mind; 
whose  mind  is  stored  with  a  knowledge  of  the  great 
and  fundamental  truths  of  nature  and  of  the  laws 


174  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

of  her  operations;  one  who,  no  stunted  ascetic,  is 
full  of  life  and  fire,  but  whose  passions  are  trained 
to  come  to  heel  by  a  vigorous  will,  the  servant  of  a 
tender  conscience ;  who  has  learned  to  love  all  beauty, 
whether  of  nature  or  of  art,  to  hate  all  vileness,  and 
to  respect  others  as  himself. — Huxley. 

Definition. — A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which 
corresponding  parts  are  made  similar  in  form  in 
order  to  put  in  bold  relief  a  similarity  or  a  contrast 
in  thought;  as — 

"He  defended  him  when  living,  amidst  the  clamors 
of  his  enemies;  and  praised  him  when  dead,  amidst 
the  silence  of  his  friends." 

The  parallel  parts  may  be  phrases  or  clauses.  The 
chief  value  of  the  balanced  structure  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  neat,  compact,  and  symmetrical.  It  is 
pleasing  to  the  ear  and  helpful  to  the  memory.  This 
fact  explains  why  so  many  verses  in  the  Psalms  and 
in  the  book  of  Proverbs  are  so  easily  remembered. 
The  balanced  structure  is  a  device  by  which  opposite 
qualities  of  the  same  person  or  thing  are  set  over 
against  each  other,  and  thus  brought  into  conspicu- 
ous relief. 

Notwithstanding  its  many  advantages,  the  bal- 
anced sentence  must  not  be  used  with  undue  fre- 
quency. The  very  rhythm  of  it  strongly  tempts 
one  to  use  it  where  no  actual  parallelism  of  likeness 
or  contrast  exists.  "The  habit  of  clothing  similar 
thoughts  in  clauses,  or  phrases  ...  of  about 
equal  length  and  similar  structure  may  easily  be- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  175 

come  a  mannerism.  A  series  of  balances  grows 
speedily  wearisome,  and  becomes  offensively  regu- 
lar." 

Dr.  Johnson  and  Lord  Macaulay  were  both  par- 
tial to  the  balanced  sentence,  and  often  used  it  to 
excess.  That  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  Johnson's 
style  is  often  stiff  and  artificial.  But  used  with  mod- 
eration, the  balanced  structure  is  one  of  the  potent 
devices  for  securing  vivacity  and  force  in  expres- 
sion. The  Bible  is  replete  with  the  best  examples 
of  the  balance. 

EXERCISE  II 

Point  out  the  balanced  parts  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences.  Commit  to  memory  the  sentences 
that  seem  most  interesting  -to  you: 

1.  My  son,  hear  the  instruction  of  thy  father,  and 
forsake  not  the  law  of  thy  mother;  for  they  shall 
be  an  ornament  of  grace  unto  thy  head,  and  chains 
about  thy  neck. 

2.  The  lip  of  truth  shall  be  established  forever; 
but  a  lying  tongue  is  but  for  a  moment. 

3.  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath 
nothing ;  there  is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath 
great  riches. 

4.  Her  ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  all 
her  paths  are  peace. 

5.  They  that  know  God  will  be  humble;  they 
that  know  themselves  can  not  be  proud. 

12 


176  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

6.  The  dictionary  is  a  cemetery  for  dead  words 
as  well  as  a  home  for  living  ones. 

7.  Holiness  is  not  the  way  to  Christ,  but  Christ 
is  the  way  to  holiness. 

8.  If  a  good  face  is  a  letter  of  recommendation, 
a  good  heart  is  a  letter  of  credit. 

9.  He  who  has  health,  has  hope;  he  who  has 
hope,  has  everything. 

10.  Hurry  is  the  mark  of  a  weak  mind ;  despatch, 
of  a  strong  one. 

11.  He  who  receives  a  benefit  should  never  for- 
get it ;  he  who  bestows  one  should  never  remember  it. 

12.  To  find  fault  is  easy;  to  do  better  may  be 
difficult. 

13.  Bad  men  excuse  their  faults;  good  men  for- 
sake theirs. 

14.  Nothing  is  so  strong  as  gentleness;  nothing 
so  gentle  as  real  strength. 

15.  Our  greatest  glory  consists  not  in  never  fall- 
ing, but  in  rising  every  time  we  fall. 

16.  In  taking  revenge,  a  man  is  but  even  with  his 
enemy;  but  in  passing  it  over,  he  is  superior. 

17.  Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill ;  talent  is  weight, 
tact  is  momentum.  Talent  knows  what  to  do,  tact 
knows  how  to  do  it ;  talent  makes  a  man  respectable, 
tact  will  make  him  respected;  talent  is  wealth,  tact 
is  ready  money. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  177 

EXERCISE  III 

Point  out  the  periodic  and  the  balanced  sentences 
found  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  chapters 
of  Romans,  and  in  the  thirteenth  and  fifteenth  chap- 
ters of  1  Corinthians.  Find  one  periodic  sentence 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Mattheiv,  and  one  in  the  first 
chapter  of  James.  The  last  sentence  in  the  fifty- 
eighth  chapter  of  Isaiah  is  a  compromise.     Why? 

FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

When  Goethe  wrote,  "Kindness  is  the  golden 
chain  by  which  society  is  bound  together,"  he  used 
some  of  his  words  in  a  sense  different  from  that 
of  their  plain  and  ordinary  use.  If  he  had  ex- 
pressed the  same  thought  thus:  "Without  kindness 
people  could  not  continue  to  live  together,"  he  would 
have  used  all  his  words  in  their  primary  or  ordinary 
sense.  In  other  words,  he  would  have  expressed  the 
thought  in  literal  language.  But,  expressing  it  as 
he  did,  he  used  figurative  language.  You  see  at 
once  that  he  did  not  mean  to  say  that  kindness  is 
an  actual  chain  of  gold.  But  his  imagination  de- 
tected a  resemblance,  or  an  analogy,  between  the 
effect  of  kindness  in  holding  people  together  in  what 
we  call  society  and  that  of  an  actual  gold  chain 
in  holding  together  certain  material  objects  to 
which  it  is  fastened. 

Should  you  say,  "We  sow  an  act  and  reap  a  habit," 
you   would   express   your  thought  by  means  of  a 


178  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

figure  of  speech.  Should  you  say,  "An  act  often 
repeated  becomes  a  habit,"  you  would  express  the 
same  thought  in  plain  or  literal  language.  "Thy 
smile  always  cheers  me,"  expresses  a  thought  in 
plain  language;  but  "Thy  smile  is  as  the  dawn  of  a 
vernal  day,"  expresses  the  same  thought  much  more 
vividly  and  attractively  by  means  of  figurative 
terms. 

Definition. — A  figure  of  speech  is  a  form  of  lan- 
guage expressing  a  relation  between  two  things  or 
ideas  which  is  literally  untrue. 

Though  a  figure  of  speech  is  a  device  of  language, 
it  is  not  an  artificial  or  unnatural  device.  All  per- 
sons, lettered  and  unlettered,  constantly  use  figura- 
tive language  without  thinking  about  it.  Imagery 
runs  in  the  blood  of  all  human  speech.  When  we 
use  figures  of  speech  we  are  simply  obeying  the  in- 
herent tendency  of  the  mind  to  compare  one  thing 
with  another  that  resembles  it  in  one  respect, 
whether  in  fact  or  only  in  our  imagination.  "The 
moment  our  discourse  rises  above  the  ground  line  of 
familiar  facts,  and  is  inflamed  with  passion  or  ex- 
alted by  thought,  it  clothes  itself  in  images,"  says 
Emerson. 

The  Simile — Definition. — A  simile  is  a  figure 
of  speech  in  which  an  analogy  or  a  likeness  is  pointed 
out  between  things  in  other  respects  unlike ;  as — 

"It  [mercy]  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from 
heaven  upon  the  place  beneath." 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  179 

The  comparison  is  usually  expressed  by  such 
words  as  so,  as,  like,  just  so,  and  as — so.  It  is  a 
device  that  was  much  used  by  the  Teacher  of  teach- 
ers, as  when  He  said,  "0  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou 
that  killest  the  prophets  and  stonest  them  that  are 
sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have  gathered 
thy  children  together,  even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her 
chickens  under  her  wings,  and  ye  would  not."  Read 
the  thirteenth  chapter  of  Matthew,  and  notice  the 
many  similes  employed  to  make  clear  the  various 
aspects  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

Similes  and  metaphors  shine  like  stars  through- 
out the  Old  Testament.  How  apt  and  beautiful  is 
the  one  found  in  Isaiah  55:10,  11:  "For  as  the 
rain  cometh  down,  and  the  snow  from  heaven,  and 
returneth  not  thither,  but  watereth  the  earth,  and 
maketh  it  bring  forth  and  bud,  that  it  may  give 
seed  to  the  sower,  and  bread  to  the  eater;  so  shall 
My  word  be  that  goeth  forth  out  of  My  mouth;  it 
shall  not  return  unto  Me  void,  but  it  shall  accom- 
plish that  which  I  please,  and  it  shall  prosper  in  the 
thing  whereto  I  sent  it."  How  beautifully  apt  is 
this :  "My  doctrine  shall  drop  as  the  rain,  My  speech 
shall  distil  as  the  dew,  as  the  small  rain  upon  the 
tender  herb,  and  as  the  showers  upon  the  grass." 
Deut.  32 :  2.    See  also  verses  11  and  12. 

Note  the  poetic  beauty  and  delicacy  of  the  fol- 
lowing cluster  of  similes  found  in  the  fourteenth 
chapter  of  Hosea: 


180     •  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

"I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto  Israel;  he  shall  grow 
as  the  lily,  and  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Lebanon. 
His  branches  shall  spread,  and  his  beauty  shall  be 
as  the  olive  tree,  and  his  smell  as  Lebanon.  They 
that  dwell  under  his  shadow  shall  return ;  they  shall 
revive  as  the  corn  and  grow  as  the  vine;  the  scent 
thereof  shall  be  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon." 

Observe  how  the  similes  given  below  serve  to  em- 
bellish as  well  as  to  clarify  thought. 

Jesus  uttered  words  that  stir  the  soul,  as  summer 
dews  call  -  up  the  faint  and  sickly  grass. — Theo. 
Parker. 

Men  whose  lives  glided  on,  like  rivers  that  water 
the  woodlands,  darkened  by  shadows  of  earth,  but 
reflecting  an  image  of  heaven. — Longfellow. 

"The  happy  associations  of  my  early  life,  that 
before  lay  scattered,  take  beautiful  shapes,  like  iron 
dust  at  the  approach  of  the  magnet." 

Wordsworth  said  of  Milton — 

Thy  soul  was  like  a  star,  and  dwelt  apart; 
Thou  hadst  a  voice  whose  sound  was  like  the  sea, 
Pure  as  the  naked  heavens,  majestic,  free. 

One  can  see  the  white  dusted  miller  in  the  fol- 
lowing simile  from  Tennyson: 

Him,  like  the  working-bee  in  blossom  dust, 
Blanched  with  his  mill,  they  found. 

Clear  writers,  like  clear  fountains,  do  not  seem 
so  deep  as  they  are. — LANDOR. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  181 

If  brain  workers  would  only  do  like  cows, — 
gather  up  their  material  as  they  walk  around  in 
the  fields  and  woods  and  assimilate  it  while  resting, 
— they  would  have  more  brains. — J.  T.  Moore. 

The  Metaphor. — The  nearest  neighbor  of  the 
simile  is  the  metaphor.  In  essence  the  two  figures 
are  alike.  Both  are  based  on  comparison.  In  a 
simile  the  comparison  is  stated  formally;  in  a  meta- 
phor it  is  implied.  We  use  a  metaphor  when  in- 
stead of  saying  that  one  thing  is  like  another  in 
some  particular,  we  say  that  it  is  the  other,  or 
speak  of  it  as  if  it  were  the  other. 

Definition. — A  metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  one  thing  is  spoken  of  by  the  name  of  an- 
other, for  the  purpose  of  making  the  expression 
more  forceful  and  attractive. 

A  metaphor  is  really  a  compressed  simile.  The 
simile  is  especially  conducive  to  clearness ;  the  meta- 
phor, to  energy;  both,  to  elegance. 

Of  all  the  figures  of  speech,  the  metaphor  is  the 
most  serviceable.  All  literature  is  packed  with 
metaphors.  It  is  difficult  to  write  a  dozen  lines 
without  using  one.  In  truth,  nine  tenths  of  our 
English  words  that  are  of  classical  origin  are  meta- 
phors in  disguise — faded  metaphors.  What  was 
once  their  literal  meaning  has  been  lost,  and  their 
secondary  or  metaphorical  signification  alone  re- 
mains. 

If  you  wrote,  "Spare  moments  are  like  gold-dust, 
small,  but  precious,"  you  would  use  a  simile.     If 


182  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

you  wrote,  " Spare  moments  are  the  gold-dust  of 
time,"  you  would  use  a  metaphor. 

Metaphors  are  particularly  useful  in  giving  form 
and  tangibility  to  abstract  ideas;  as  when  David 
says,  'Thy  Word  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet,  and  a  light 
unto  my  path/'  "The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd,  I  shall 
not  want,"  and  "The  Lord  God  is  a  sun  and  shield." 
"Prayer  is  the  key  of  the  morning  and  the  bolt 
of  the  night,"  wrote  Beecher.  "Prayer"  is  some- 
thing abstract,  but  a  "key"  and  a  "bolt"  are  con- 
crete enough.  How  this  metaphor  helps  us  to  grasp 
one  of  the  many  good  offices  of  prayer!  The  meta- 
phor helps  not  only  the  understanding,  but  also 
the  memory.  A  thought  expressed  in  an  appropriate 
metaphor  is  easily  remembered.  There  is  something 
about  an  apt  metaphor  that  makes  it  "stick." 
Metaphors  are  also  conducive  to  brevity.  Were  it 
not  for  the  metaphorical  construction,  many  of  the 
most  common  thoughts  would  have  to  be  expressed 
in  a  long,  roundabout  way. 

EXERCISE  IV 

Point  out  the  metaphors  in  the  sentences  below. 
Change  some  of  them  to  literal  language,  and  note 
the  effect: 

1.  We  are  the  prisoners  of  ideas. 

2.  He  is  the  very  pineapple  of  politeness. 

3.  The  world's  a  bubble,  and  the  life  of  man 
less  than  a  span. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  183 

4.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be 
swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 
— Bacon. 

5.  Habit  is  .  .  .  the  enormous  fly-wheel  of 
society. 

6.  His  mind  was  wax  to  receive  impressions,  and 
marble  to  retain  them. 

7.  For  what  is  your  life?  It  is  even  a  vapor, 
that  appeareth  for  a  little  time,  and  then  vanisheth 
away.     James  4 :  14. 

8.  The  effective  public  speaker  receives  from  his 
audience  in  vapor  what  he  pours  back  on  them  in 
a  flood. — Gladstone. 

9.  I  am  the  living  bread  which  came  down  from 
heaven. — JESUS. 

10.  On  the  soft  bed  of  luxury  most  kingdoms  have 
expired. — YOUNG. 

11.  Your  voiceless  lips,  0  flowers,  are  living 
preachers — each  cup  a  pulpit,  and  each  leaf  a  book. 
— Horace  Smith. 

Personification  —  Definition. —  A  Personifica- 
tion is  a  kind  of  metaphor  that  consists  in  attrib- 
uting the  qualities  of  persons  or  animals  to  an 
inanimate  thing,  or  in  attributing  human  qualities 
to  a  mere  animal;  as  — 

"Earth  with  her  thousand  voices  praises  God." 
The  personifying  of  lifeless  objects  is  an  original 
tendency  of-  the  human  mind,  which  feels  a  com- 
munity of  life  with  the  objects  about  it.    "The  mind 
naturally  animates  inanimate  things."     The  child 


184  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

elevates  into  a  companion  of  its  life  the  most  com- 
mon and  trivial  objects.  The  value  of  this  figure 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  gives  concreteness  and  ani- 
mation to  style.  For  this  reason  it  serves  both  to 
please  and  to  impress. 

In  the  commonest  forms  of  this  figure  the  per- 
sonification is  expressed  in  adjectives,  as  when  we 
speak  of  angry  clouds,  a  frowning  precipice,  a  raging 
storm,  a  pitiless  stone,  the  thirsty  ground,  the  proud 
palace.  The  personification  is  far  more  impressive 
and  bold  when  it  is  expressed  in  verbs,  as  the  fol- 
lowing from  Isaiah  55 :  12 :  "For  ye  shall  go  out 
with  joy,  and  be  led  forth  with  peace;  the  mountains 
and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  sing- 
ing, and  all  the  trees  of  the  fields  shall  clap  their 
hands." 

EXERCISE  V 

Study  the  following  passages,  and  tell  which 
tvords  in  each  express  the  personification: 

1.  Yet  Love  will  dream,  and  Faith  will  trust, 
That  somehow,  somewhere,  meet  we  must. 

2.  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language ;  for  his  gayer  hours 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile, 
And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 
Into  his  darker  musings  with  a  mild 
And  healing  sympathy  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness  ere  he  is  aware. 

— Bryant. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  185 

3.  The  Night  is  mother  of  the  Day, 
The  Winter  of  the  Spring. 

— Whittier.  . 

4.  For  weeks  the  clouds  had  raked  the  hills 

And  vexed  the  vales  with  raining, 
And  all  the  woods  were  sad  with  mist, 
And  all  the  brooks  complaining. 

— Whittier. 

5.  Soon  as  the  evening  shades  prevail, 
The  moon  takes  up  the  wondrous  tale; 
And  nightly  to  the  listening  earth, 
Repeats  the  story  of  her  birth; 

While  all  the  stars  that  'round  her  burn, 
And  all  the  planets  in  their  turn, 
Confirm  the  tidings  as  they  roll, 
And  spread  the  truth  from  pole  to  pole. 

What  though  in  solemn  silence  all 
Move  'round  this  dark  terrestrial  ball? 
What  though  no  real  voice  nor  sound 
Amid  their  radiant  orbs  be  found? 
In  reason's  ear  they  all  rejoice, 
And  utter  forth  a  glorious  voice, 
Forever  singing  as  they  shine, 
"The  hand  that  made  us  is  divine." 

— Addison. 

6.  Good-by  to  Flattery's  fawning  face; 
To  Grandeur  with  his  wise  grimace ; 
To  upstart  Wealth's  averted  eye; 
To  supple  office,  low  and  high. 

— Anon. 


186  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Figure  of  Apostrophe — Definition. — The  apos- 
trophe is  a  figure  of  speech  that  consists  in  address- 
ing absent  persons  as  if  they  were  present,  the 
dead  as  if  they  were  living,  or  impersonal  things  as 
if  they  were  personal;  as  — 

Awake,  awake;  put  on  thy  strength,  0  Zion;  put 
on  thy  beautiful  garments,  0  Jerusalem,  the  holy 
city;  for  henceforth  there  shall  no  more  come  into 
thee  the  uncircumcised  and  the  unclean.  Shake  thy- 
self from  the  dust ;  arise,  and  sit  down,  0  Jerusalem ; 
loose  thyself  from  the  bands  of  thy  neck,  0  captive 
daughter  of  Zion.    Isa.  52 :  1,  2. 

The  poet  Halleck  addressed  the  following  lines 
to  his  dead  friend,  the  poet  J.  R.  Drake: 
Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 

Friend  of  my  better  days! 
None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee, 
None  named  thee  but  to  praise. 

Note  the  concreteness  and  life  with  which  the 
following  thoughts  are  invested  by  the  figure  of 
apostrophe : 

1.  O  Liberty,  can  men  resign  thee, 
Once  having  felt  thy  generous  flame? 

— DeLisle. 

2.  Ye  mountains  of  Gilboa,  let  there  be  no  dew, 
neither  let  there  be  rain,  upon  you,  no  fields  of  of- 
ferings.— Bible. 

3.  Come,  old  Assyria,  with  the  dove  of  Nineveh 
upon  thy  emerald  crown,  what  laid  thee  low? 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  187 

4.  Over  the  seas  and  far  away, 

0  swallow,  do  you  remember  at  all, 
The  nest  in  the  lichened  garden  wall, 
Where  you  were  born  one  day  in  spring, 
Where  the  sun  looked  in  through  an  ivy  screen, 
And  the  leaves  of  the  lilac  were  large  and 
green  ? 

— Katherine  Tynan. 

5.  0  death,  where  is  thy  sting?  0  grave,  where  is 
thy  victory? 

6.  Advance,  then,  ye  future  generations!  We 
would  hail  you,  as  you  rise  in  your  long  succession, 
to  fill  the  places  which  we  now  fill,  and  to  taste 
the  blessings  of  existence  where  we  are  passing,  and 
soon  shall  have  passed,  our  own  human  duration. 
We  bid  you  welcome  to  this  pleasant  land  of  the 
fathers. — Webster. 

When  the  object  addressed  is  impersonal,  the 
figure  is  both  an  apostrophe  and  a  personification. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  only  such  apostro- 
phes are  legitimate  as  are  the  spontaneous  expres- 
sion of  intense  emotion.  Any  other  would  savor 
so  much  of  design  as  to  disgust  the  reader. 

Allegory — Definition. — An  allegory  is  a  figura- 
tive description  or  narrative  in  which  the  primary  or 
actual  subject  is  presented  in  the  guise  of  a  second- 
ary or  representative  subject,  the  two  being  so  re- 
lated that  the  representative  subject  readily  sug- 
gests the  actual. 


188  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

An  allegory  is  usually  defined  as  an  extended 
metaphor,  both  being  thought  of  as  implied  com- 
parisons, differing  only  in  length.  It  is  true  that  an 
allegory  is  almost  always  longer  than  a  metaphor; 
but  this  difference  is  only  an  accidental  one.  The 
essential  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that,  in  allegory, 
the  actual  subject  of  thought  is  far  less  obvious  than 
it  is  in  a  metaphor.  In  allegory  the  real  subject 
masquerades  under  the  garb  of  the  apparent,  or 
instrumental,  subject.  In  most  metaphors  the  real 
subject  is  formally  named;  in  allegory  it  is  never 
so  named. 

The  Bible  contains  a  number  of  excellent  short 
allegories.  The  following  specimen  is  a  part  of 
the  eightieth  Psalm: 

"Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt;  thou 
hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou 
preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to 
take  deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs 
thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out 
her  boughs  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  unto  the 
river.  Why  hast  thou  then  broken  down  her  hedges, 
so  that  all  they  which  pass  by  the  way  do  pluck  her? 
The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild 
beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it.  Return,  we  be- 
seech thee,  0  God  of  hosts ;  look  down  from  heaven, 
and  behold,  and  visit  this  vine." 

The  following  are  famous  examples  of  allegory: 
Longfellow's  "Building  of  the  Ship,"  Bryant's  "Wait- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  189 

ing  by  the  Gate,"  Swift's  "The  Tale  of  a  Tub," 
Hawthorne's  "Celestial  Railroad,"  Poe's  "Raven," 
Dante's  "Divina  Commedia"  Spenser's  "Fairie 
Queen,"  and,  above  all,  Bunyan's  "Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress." 

EXERCISE  VI 

Write  in  'plain  language  the  meaning  of  the  al- 
legory above  quoted  from  the  eightieth  Psalm. 

By  consulting  a  good  dictionary,  prepare  to  ex- 
plain orally  in  the  recitation  the  difference  between 
an  allegory  proper  and  a  parable;  between  a  parable 
and  a  fable. 

Faulty  Metaphors. — A  metaphor  is  said  to  be 
mixed,  or  incongruous,  when  made  up  of  parts  not 
consistent  with  each  other ;  as,  "He  is  swamped  in  the 
meshes  of  his  argument."  Here  the  word  swamped 
brings  before  the  mind  the  pictures  of  a  bog,  but 
meshes  that  of  a  net-work.  The  parts  of  the  meta- 
phor are  not  of  the  same  piece;  the  figure  is  not 
homogeneous.  It  should  be  either,  "He  is  swamped 
in  the  mire  of  his  argument,"  or  "He  is  entangled 
in  the  meshes  of  his  argument."  Another  mistake 
is  to  blend  metaphorical  with  plain  language.  What 
is  begun  in  metaphor  is  pieced  out  with  plain  lan- 
guage, and  vice  versa;  as,  "The  strong  pillar  of  the 
church  had  fled"  Here  pillar  is  figurative,  and  fled 
is  literal.  The  statement  should  be  either  literal  or 
metaphorical  throughout;  thus,  "The  most  influen- 
tial man  of  the  church  had  fled,"  or  "The  strong 
pillar  of  the  church  had  fallen." 


190  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  VII 

The  following  sentences  contain  faulty  metaphors. 
Reconstruct  the  sentences  making  whatever  changes 
are  necessary  to  insure  correctness: 

1.  Chaucer  was  the  father  of  English  poetry,  and 
a  favorite  of  the  king.  2.  A  torrent  of  superstition 
consumed  the  land.  3.  No  human  happiness  is  so 
serene  as  not  to  contain  some  alloy.  4.  Hope,  the 
balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the  thick- 
est gloom.  5.  Solve  the  mazes  of  this  dark  tragedy. 
6.  Pilot  us  through  the  wilderness  of  life.  7.  A 
varnish  of  morality  makes  his  actions  palatable. 
8.  These  young  men  do  not  realize  that  they  are 
sowing  the  seeds  of  a  drunkard's  grave.  9.  Fancy 
sports  on  airy  wing,  like  a  meteor  on  the  bosom  of 
a  summer  cloud.  10.  Throw  open  the  floodgates  of 
democracy,  and  you  pave  the  way  for  a  general  con- 
flagration. 11.  He  is  fairly  launched  on  the  road 
to  preferment.  12.  The  shot  of  the  enemy  mowed 
down  our  ranks  with  frightful  rapidity.  13.  In 
the  current  of  these  mysterious  and  awful  events 
we  can  not  fail  to  see  the  footprints  of  an  all- 
powerful  hand.  14.  Italy  is  a  narrow  tongue  of 
land,  the  backbone  of  which  is  formed  by  the  Ap- 
ennines. 15.  These  are  the  first  fruits  of  my  long 
study,  at  last  unearthed  and  brought  to  light.  16. 
Wild  fancies  gamboled  unbridled  through  his  brain, 
and  swept  away  all  his  firm  resolves.  17.  He  kindles 
the  slumbering  fires  of  passion.     18.  The  voice  of 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  191 

England,  which  sounded  so  clearly  at  the  last  gen- 
eral election,  would  be  lost  sight  of. 

Note. — The  minor  figures  of  speech — metonymy,  synecdoche, 
antithesis,  hyperbole,  climax,  epigram,  and  irony — are  valuable 
chiefly  as  means  for  promoting  energy  of  style.  For  this  reason 
they  will  be  treated  in  our  study  of  Force  as  a  quality  of  style. 

ELEMENTS  OF  STYLE 

Style  in  composition  refers  primarily,  not  to 
thought,  but  to  the  mode  or  manner  of  expressing 
thought  in  words.  Thought  is  the  matter  of  com- 
position. It  answers  the  question  What?  Style 
answers  the  question  How?  Of  course,  in  practice, 
the  style  can  not  be  wholly  independent  of  the 
thought;  for  the  character  of  the  thought  should 
largely  determine  the  character  of  the  style.  The 
ability  to  effect  a  happy  adjustment  of  the  style 
to  the  thought  is  what  chiefly  distinguishes  the  good 
from  the  poor  writer.  A  perfect  "fit"  of  style  to 
thought  is  indispensable  to  effective  composition. 
It  is  this  adjustment  which  makes  a  composition 
readable. 

A  good  style  expresses  thought  clearly,  impress- 
ively, and  attractively.  Hence  a  good  style  must 
possess  clearness,  force,  and  attractiveness.  The 
qualities  of  style  are  not  entirely  distinct  each  from 
the  others;  for  clearness  contributes  to  force,  and 
clearness  and  force  promote  attractiveness. 

13 


192  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

CLEARNESS 

Since  it  is  the  office  of  a  sentence  to  convey  a 
thought,  the  first  requisite  of  a  good  sentence  is 
clearness.  Lucidity  takes  precedence  of  all  other 
qualities  of  style.  Force  and  beauty  count  for 
nothing  if  the  sentence  be  not  first  clear,  for  clear- 
ness is  the  foundation  upon  which  all  other  quali- 
ties of  style  are  built.  The  absence  of  clearness  is 
known  by  the  big  word  ambiguity.  An  ambiguous 
sentence  is  one  that  is  open  to  two  or  more  inter- 
pretations. A  vague  sentence  is  one  that  is  so  lack- 
ing in  precision  as  to  convey  no  thought  definitely. 
Ambiguity,  or  vagueness  of  style,  is  a  fatal  blemish, 
— a  blemish  that  the  reader  will  not  brook. 

Clear  Thinking. — The  first  requisite  to  clear- 
ness of  style  is  clear,  definite  thinking.  A  writer 
can  not  make  his  thoughts  clearer  to  others  than 
it  is  to  himself.  Haziness  of  thought  must  result 
in  haziness  of  expression. 

Correct  Arrangement. — Oftentimes  a  sentence 
lacks  clearness  because  its  parts  are  improperly  ar- 
ranged. Parts  which  belong  together  should  not  be 
needlessly  separated.  Modifiers,  especially  phrases 
and  clauses,  may  be  placed  so  far  away  from  the 
words  they  modify  that  the  meaning  of  the  sen- 
tence is  changed  or  made  obscure.  One  of  the 
most  important  aids  to  clearness  is,  therefore,  skill- 
ful  arrangement  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence.  A 
sentence  so  constructed  is  coherent,  and  a  coherent 
sentence  is  always  clear.    If  one  should  write,  "He 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  193 

answered  all  the  questions  that  were  asked  him 
quickly,"  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  reader  to  de- 
termine whether  quickly  is  intended  to  modify  an- 
swered  or  asked.  By  inserting  quickly  next  after 
answered  all  ambiguity  is  removed. 

EXERCISE  VIII 

Render  the  follotving  sentences  clear,  by  improv- 
ing the  arrangement  of  their  parts: 

1.  I  learned  what  an  inefficient  teacher  I  was 
later  in  life. 

2.  He  said  that  his  traveling  bag  had  been  stolen 
while  sleeping  in  the  car. 

3.  An  exhibition  of  drawing  by  youthful  ama- 
teurs well  worthy  of  inspection. 

4.  While  playing  ball  one  Sunday,  a  pious  old 
man  spoke  to  him. 

5.  Various  estimates  have  been  made  as  to  the 
time  of  the  birth  of  Columbus  from  the  few  facts 
which  we  have  about  his  early  life. 

6.  He  spoke  to  the  young  man  who  had  been  in- 
toxicated most  earnestly. 

7.  "Paradise  Lost"  is  a  poem  about  Satan  di- 
vided into  twelve  parts. 

8.  Sometimes  disturbances  arise,  but  they  are 
usually  checked  before  much  harm  is  done  by  the 
policemen. 

9.  The  preacher  spoke  about  the  evils  of  gam- 
bling without  manuscript  or  note. 


194  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

10.  Take  one  of  the  powders  on  retiring  in  a  little 
hot  water. 

11.  My  uncle  lives  in  the  country  and  of  course 
keeps  chickens  like  the  majority  of  the  farmers. 

12.  That  dog  almost  seems  human. 

13.  Towser  lost  the  use  of  one  of  his  legs,  so 
we  had  to  shoot  him  out  of  humanity. 

EXERCISE  IX 

What  word  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  is 
misplaced?    Where  should  it  be  placed?     Why? 

1.  Some  people  only  succeed  in  getting  themselves 
into  trouble.  2.  The  force  of  habit  is  even  carried 
into  the  sacred  region  of  religion.  3.  It  is  probably 
thought  that  he  will  succeed.  4.  He  has  a  very  small 
income,  as  he  nearly  lost  all  his  property.  5.  He 
neither  answered  my  letter  nor  my  card.  6.  You 
can  neither  borrow  the  organ  nor  the  piano.  7.  Try 
only  to  see  the  bright  side.  8.  James  has  only  been 
tardy  twice.  •  9.  Do  you  take  the  medicine  I  send  you 
regularly?  10.  The  resolution  was  only  adopted  by 
a  majority  of  two.  11.  Juvenile  courts  are  only  of 
use  in  large  cities.  12.  The  grains  mostly  cultivated 
here  are  oats  and  rye. 

Skill  in  Using  Participles. — In  regard  to  the 
correct  use  of  participles,  Mr.  Alfred  M.  Hitchcock 
says:  "Skillfully  used,  it  [a  participle]  is  exceed- 
ingly helpful  in  sentence-building;  clumsily  used,  it 
may  prove  but  an  annoyance.  The  one  thing  to 
remember  is  that  it  must  modify  something.     Oc- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  195 

casionally  an  untrained  writer  will  make  a  partici- 
ple modify  a  word  that  he  has  in  his  mind  but  which 
is  not  expressed  at  all  in  the  sentence.  Occasionally 
he  will  use  a  participial  phrase  in  such  a  way  that 
the  reader  must  guess  which  of  two  words  it  modi- 
fies.    In  either  case  confusion  arises." 

EXERCISE  X 

Point  out  in  the  following  sentences  the  parti- 
cipial phrases  improperly  used.  Change  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentences  in  such  a  way  that  the 
reader  can  have  no  doubt  what  word  each  phrase 
modifies : 

1.  Riding  quickly  to  the  other  end  of  the  line  the 
command  of  the  officer  came  sharp  and  clear.  2. 
Standing  on  the  seashore  two  vessels  are  seen  mov- 
ing in  opposite  directions.  3.  While  eating  our 
luncheon  the  train  was  speeding  on.  4.  After  hur- 
riedly eating  my  supper,  a  friend  came  in.  5. 
Struggling  for  a  career  that  was  more  than  life  to 
him,  his  hope  and  faith  kept  strong  to  the  end. 
6.  The  gun  was  returned  to  its  owner,  having  decided 
not  to  go  hunting.  7.  Getting  up  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  first  thing  observed  is  the  freshness  of  the 
air.  8.  Alarmed  at  the  news,  a  messenger  was  des- 
patched to  the  governor.  9.  Mary  at  once  answered 
the  note  received  from  her  friend,  urging  her  to 
come  and  see  her.  10.  The  crowd  contained  the 
usual  number  of  babies  and  baby  carriages,  crying 
or  sleeping. 


196  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Care  in  the  Use  of  Pronouns. — Carelessness  in 
the  using  of  pronouns  is  a  fruitful  source  of  am- 
biguity. Every  pronoun  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
enable  the  reader  to  see  at  a  glance  what  ante- 
cedent the  pronoun  is  meant  to  represent.  Writers 
of  considerable  experience  sometimes  commit  errors 
in  dealing  with  pronouns.  Here,  if  anywhere,  vigi- 
lance is  the  price  of  uniform  correctness. 

The  chief  devices  for  making  the  reference  of 
pronouns  clear  are:  (1)  the  employment  of  the  de- 
monstratives this,  that,  these,  those,  the  former,  tlie 
latter;  (2)  the  repetition  of  the  antecedent;  (3) 
changing  to  direct  discourse. 

In  the  following  sentence  as  it  stands,  the  refer- 
ence of  the  pronouns  is  wholly  uncertain.  By  chang- 
ing the  sentence  to  direct  discourse  all  is  made  clear. 

"He  told  his  friend  that  if  he  did  not  feel  better 
in  half  an  hour,  he  thought  he  would  better  re- 
turn." It  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  the 
speaker  or  the  one  spoken  to  "would  better  return." 
Change  to  "He  said  to  his  friend,  'If  I  (or  you) 
do  not  feel  better  in  half  an  hour,  I  think  I  (or  you) 
would  better  return.'  " 

"He  promised  his  father  that  he  would  pay  his 
debts."  Whose  debts,  his  own  or  his  father's,  did 
he  promise  to  pay?  If  he  promised  to  pay  his 
father's  debts,  the  sentence  should  stand  thus :  "He 
promised  his  father  that  he  would  pay  his  father's 
debts."     If  he  promised  to  pay  his  own,  the  sen- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  197 

tence  must  be  changed  to  direct  discourse  :"He  made 
this  promise  to  his  father,  'I  will  pay  my  debts.'  " 

Note  the  hopeless  ambiguity  that  arises  from  the 
reckless  use  of  pronouns,  in  the  following : 

"On  his  way,  he  visited  a  son  of  an  old  friend, 
who  had  asked  him  to  call  upon  him  on  his  journey 
northward.  He  was  overjoyed  to  see  him,  and  he 
sent  for  one  of  his  most  intelligent  workmen  and 
told  him  to  consider  himself  at  his  service,  as  he 
himself  could  not  take  him  as  he  wished  about  the 
city." 

By  skillful  repetition  the  ambiguity  is  cleared  up ; 
thus  : 

"On  his  way  he  visited  an  old  friend's  son,  who 
had  asked  him  to  call,  on  his  journey  northward. 
The  host  was  overjoyed  to  see  him,  and,  sending  for 
one  of  his  most  intelligent  workmen,  told  him  to 
consider  himself  at  the  stranger's  service,  as  he 
himself  could  not  take  his  guest  as  he  could  have 
wished  about  the  city." 

A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  should 
be  given  such  a  position  in  the  sentence  as  will  make 
its  reference  evident  at  once. 

In  the  sentence,  "I  have  letters  from  college  stu- 
dents and  others  that  are  curiosities  in  their  way," 
the  relative  pronoun  that  has  three  possible  antece- 
dents— letters,  students,  and  others.  All  is  made 
clear  by  giving  the  sentence  the  following  cast: 
"From  college  students  and  others,  I  have  received 
letters  that  are  curiosities  in  their  way." 


198  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

The  statement,  "The  figs  were  in  small  wooden 
boxes  which  we  ate,"  should  be,  "The  figs  which  we 
ate  were  in  small  wooden  boxes."  The  sentence, 
"He  must  endure  the  foibles  of  others,  who  would 
have  their  kindness,"  should  be,  "He  who  v/ould 
have  the  kindness  of  others  must  endure  their  foi- 
bles." The  sentence,  "The  day  has  come  of  great 
rejoicing  to  many  hearts,  which  we  have  looked  for 
so  long,"  should  be,  "The  long-looked-for  day  of 
rejoicing  to  many  hearts  has  come  at  last."  Ob- 
serve how  a  repetition  saves  the  following  sentence 
from  ambiguity :  "The  lad  can  not  leave  his  father ; 
for  if  he  should  leave  his  father,  his  father  would 
die."    Gen.  .44 :  22. 

The  writer  of  "The  intellectual  qualities  of  the 
youth  were  superior  to  those  of  his  raiment,"  meant 
to  say,  "The  qualities  of  the  youth's  intellect  were 
superior  to  those  of  his  raiment."  The  sentence, 
"Mr.  Jones  has  just  received  a  letter  from  Mr. 
Smith,  saying  that  he  is  expected  to  deliver  the 
next  annual  address,"  should  be,  "Mr.  Jones  has  just 
received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Smith,  saying  that  the 
former  (or  Mr.  Jones)  is  expected  to  deliver  the 
next  annual  address." 

"My  punishment  did  him  good,"  might  mean 
"The  punishment  I  received  did  him  good,"  or  'The 
punishment  I  gave  him  did  him  good." 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  199 

EXERCISE  XI 

In  the  following  sentences  some  of  the  personal 
and  some  of  the  relative  pronouns  are  used  ambigu- 
ously. Reconstruct  the  sentences,  making  whatever 
changes  are  necessary  for  clearness: 

1.  Tom  lost  his  dog  when  he  was  but  three  years 
old.  2.  The  street  on  which  I  live  is  near  the  center 
of  the  city,  which  is  very  convenient  for  shopping. 
3.  The  train  did  not  leave  the  station  that  day,  for 
they  considered  the  roadbed  unsafe.  4.  Before  the 
days  of  steam  cars  they  used  to  travel  by  stage 
coach.  5.  A  pig  may  have  a  little  sense,  but  when  it 
is  being  driven  into  a  pen,  it  seems  very  small.  6. 
Instead  of  engines,  horses  are  used  in  some  cities 
to  haul  freight  cars  through  the  streets  because  they 
make  too  much  noise.  7.  There  is  a  good  ball  ground 
here  where  they  have  games  once  a  week.  8.  Her- 
bert's father  died  when  he  was  quite  young.  9. 
When  he  was  brought  before  the  judge,  he  smiled. 
10.  No  doubt  Charles  is  clever,  but  it  will  not  make 
up  for  his  carelessness.  11.  The  doctor  told  his 
brother  that  he  could  not  go  out  on  account  of  the 
weather.  12.  Fine  hairs  often  cover  the  bodies  of 
insects  which  are  very  thick  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  creature. 

Too  Few  Words. —  Sentences  may  be  misleading 
because  necessary  words  are  lacking.  Professor 
Carpenter  says  that  "young  writers,  especially  those 
who  try  to  be  what  is  loosely  called  'practical,'  are 
often  as  likely  to  use  too  few.  words  as  too  many." 


200  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

A  clever  lawyer  once  said:  "Brevity  is  sometimes 
overrated.  The  number  of  a  man's  words  should  be 
like  the  length  of  a  blanket — enough  to  cover  the 
bed  and  to  tuck  in  besides."  One  may  forget  "that 
a  piece  of  writing  may  be  so  condensed  as  to  be 
dense." 

The  omission  of  only  a  word  or  two  often  results 
in  ambiguity.  If  I  should  say  that  I  met  the  "secre- 
tary and  treasurer"  this  morning,  you  would  be  in 
doubt  as  to  whether  I  meant  one  person  or  two.  The 
question,  "Have  you  more  interest  in  him  than 
others?"  might  mean,  "Have  you  more  interest  in 
him  than  others  have?"  or,  "Have  you  more  interest 
in  him  than  you  have  in  others?"  Mr.  Warner  once 
said,  "It  makes  one  as  hungry  as  one  of  Scott's 
novels."  Strange  that  any  of  Scott's  novels  should 
ever  get  hungry.  He  meant,  "It  makes  one  as  hun- 
gry as  does  one  of  Scott's  novels."  The  main  part 
of  an  infinitive  should  not  be  omitted  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence;  as,  "He  ate  when  he  wished  to,"  should 
be,  "He  ate  when  he  wished  to  eat."  The  prepo- 
sition at  must  not  be  omitted  before  home  in  such 
constructions  as,  "He  boards  and  sleeps  at  home." 
The  preposition  should  not  be  omitted  when  used 
with  days  of  the  month ;  as,  "The  war  began  on  the 
nineteenth  of  April."  When  two  or  more  connected 
nouns  denote  things  that  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  each  other  or  emphasized,  the  article  must  be 
inserted  before  each  noun;  as,  "The  man  was 
obliged  to  choose  between  a  black  and  a  blue  suit." 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  201 

"The  days  of  Charles  II  were  the  golden  days  of 
the  coward,  the  bigot,  and  the  slave."  The  omission 
of  that  in  sentences  like  the  following,  defeats 
clearness :  "He  chose  between  the  lot  of  the  rich  and 
that  of  the  poor." 

EXERCISE  XII 

Supply  necessary  words  omitted  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  Wanted:  A  servant  who  can  cook  and  care 
for  children.  2.  If  the  seam  of  your  gloves  hurts 
you,  turn  inside  out.  3.  We  went  to  pick  flowers 
and  fish.  4.  I  had  great  fun  driving  the  horse  from 
the  top  of  the  hayload.  5.  The  error  has  and  will 
again  be  exploded.  6.  It  bears  us  back  ninety  years, 
when  the  eyes  of  the  whole  world  were  turned  to- 
ward France.  7.  Clean  the  meat  thoroughly,  then 
roll  in  flour.  8.  She  beats  the  mixture  till  smooth. 
9.  I  think  he  likes  him  better  than  you.  10.  He 
has  tried  the  old  and  new  method  of  cure.  11.  I 
will  work  for  the  success  of  this  measure  rather 
than  the  other.  12.  Their  intentions  might  and 
probably  were  good. 

Unity  in  Sentence  Building. — Every  good  sen- 
tence is  a  well-knit  sentence.  Its  parts  all  cohere. 
It  contains  but  one  central  thought.  It  may  be  long, 
and  may  be  made  up  of  a  variety  of  clauses  and 
phrases;  but  these  clauses  and  phrases  are  strictly 
subordinated  to  the  clause  or  clauses  expressing  the 
main  thought.     In  short,  a  good  sentence  is  sym- 


202  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

metrical  and  firmly  jointed.  It  exists  for  the  sake 
of  one  thought, — a  thought  that  stands  out  "with 
the  high  light  upon  it."  The  ideal  sentence  is  an 
organism,  from  which  everything  that  does  not  con- 
tribute to  the  completeness  of  the  organism,  is  ex- 
cluded. Good  sentences  rarely  contain  parentheses. 
They  come  to  an  easy,  natural  close.  A  sentence 
that  meets  these  requirements  is  said  to  possess 
Unity.  But  unity  is  merely  one  of  the  conditions 
of  clearness  and  force. 

A  sentence  which  wants  unity  is  either  shambling 
and  rickety  in  structure,  or  heterogeneous  in  con- 
tent. Professor  Meiklejohn  gives  the  following 
specimen  of  a  loose-jointed  sentence:  "I  asked  him 
to  show  me  his  picture,  which  he  did,  and  pointed 
out  one  in  particular,  a  portrait  of  a  young  man, 
painted,  he  said,  by  Wilson." 

Note  the  irrelevancy  of  the  several  thoughts  in 
this  sentence:  "The  admiral  died  in  his  ninety-first 
year,  when  the  Thames  was  covered  with  ice  eleven 
inches  thick,  during  a  severe  winter  when  nearly 
all  the  birds  perished."  What  is  here  said  regard- 
ing the  condition  of  the  Thames  should  be  the  sub- 
ject of  a  distinct  sentence. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  sentence  which 
is  clear  and  coherent  can  not  contain  more  than 
one  meaning  of  the  same  word.  The  following  sen- 
tences illustrate  this  fault:  This  is  my  duty  so  long 
as  I  keep  within  the  bounds  of  duty.  He  left  this 
world,  leaving  a  handsome  fortune  to  his  children. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  203 

The  letters  of  many  men  of  letters  are  not  distin- 
guished above  those  of  ordinary  letter-writers. 
Feathers  are  heavier  than  nothing;  nothing  is 
heavier  than  lead;  therefore  feathers  are  heavier 
than  lead. 

Every  one  that  writes  for  the  public  should  deem 
it  his  moral  duty  to  make  every  sentence  he  writes 
as  clear  as  it  can  be  made.  Clearness  is,  in  its  last 
analysis,  truthfulness.  Ambiguity  is  distortion,  and 
distortion  is  essentially  untruth. 

FORCE 

It  is  not  usually  sufficient  that  a  thought  be  clearly 
and  correctly  expressed.  For  even  then  it  may  be 
feeble,  dull,  and  therefore  unimpressive.  Vigor  and 
vivacity  of  expression,  command  the  reader's  at- 
tention, stimulate  him  to  think,  and  to  grasp  what 
is  said.  A  thought  adequately  expressed  is  not  only 
intelligible,  but  effective.  Every  sentence  should  be 
so  worded  and  its  parts  so  arranged  as  will  best 
fit  it  to  bring  out  all  the  strength  of  its  contained 
thought.  Let  it  be  observed  too  that  energy  of  ex- 
pression implies  clearness.  Ambiguity  and  force 
can  never  go  together. 

Again,  it  should  be  observed  that  a  forceful  style  is 
not  appropriate  to  all  varieties  of  thought.  Unim- 
portant ideas,  however  clearly  expressed,  are  not 
suited  to  emphatic  and  vigorous  presentation.  To 
clothe  a  thought  with  a  quality  foreign  to  it  is  to 
violate  the  law  of  fitness  and  harmony.     To  speak 


204  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

with  energy  of  a  tooth-pick  or  an  infant's  rattle 
is  to  utter  either  burlesque  or  bombast. 

DEVICES  FOR  SECURING  FORCE 

It  is  not  in  the  power  of  rules  to  make  one  a 
forceful  writer.  Without  conviction,  and  strength 
of  thought,  no  one  can  write  forcefully.  Yet  the 
learner  will  find  it  extremely  profitable  to  study  and 
practice  some  of  the  ways  in  which  increased  im- 
pressiveness  and  distinction  may  be  imparted  to 
spoken  or  written  thought. 

Plain  Words. — Long,  classical  words  may  impart 
rhythm  and  dignity  to  language,  but  they  rarely 
have  the  effect  of  promoting  vigor  and  animation 
of  expression.  The  short,  simple  words  of  the  Ian 
guage  have  a  sharpness  and  a  native  strength  to 
which  long,  learned  words  are  strangers.  Hence, 
as  a  rule,  a  writer's  style  is  made  more  vigorous  by 
the  use  of  plain  words — the  words  of  every  day  life. 

Run  over  in  your  mind  such  synonyms  as  the  fol- 
lowing", and  note  how  much  more  vivid  is  the  shorter 
member  of  each  pair  of  synonyms.  Crazy  and  de- 
mented, steal  and  embezzle,  guess  and  conjecture, 
get  drunk  and  become  intoxicated,  be  off  and  with- 
draw iioh r  presence,  sweat  and  perspiration,  pierce 
and  penetrate,  sick  and  indisposed,  invalid  and  vale- 
tudinarian'. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  205 

EXERCISE  XIII 

Substitute  a  simpler  word  for  each  italicized  word 
in  the  following  sentences: 

Will  you  accord  him  this  favor? 

See  that  the  apartment  is  ventilated. 

Such  penurious  tendencies  are  not  to  be  extirpated. 

This  is  to  be  his  domicile. 

Let  there  be  an  interstice  between  the  two  parts. 

The  termination  of  his  career  does  not  fulfil  the 
promise  of  its  commencement. 

She  does  not  speak  even  her  vernacular  with  pro- 
priety. 

You  had  better  put  an  impediment  on  his  rashness. 

We  shall  have  a  collation  before  the  ride. 

To  effectuate  your  purpose,  get  his  influence. 

The  schoolroom  is  palatial. 

The  new  training  field  will  enhance  athletics. 

He  manipulates  the  mandolin  well. 

The  architect  will  make  good  use  of  all  the  po- 
tentialities of  the  old  building. 

He  is  to  inaugurate  the  new  drill  to-morrow. 

My  companion  seemed  lost  in  his  cogitations. 

To  approximate  to  such  a  standard,  is  better  than 
to  reach  a  lower  one. 

He  has  precipitated  his  return  to  this  country. 

The  lecturer  is  a  fine-looking  personage,  but  not 
an  interesting  speaker. 

This  fact  alone  ought  not  to  invalidate  his  argu- 
ment. 


206  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Why  does  he  take  cognizance  of  mere  trifles? 

The  celerity  and  the  dexterity  of  his  movements 
are  remarkable. 

The  singer  has  a  captivating  manner. 

The  mendacity  of  this  report  is  shameful. 

It  is  a  fine  locality. 

Specific  Words. — The  use  of  specific  words  tends 
to  augment  energy  of  style.  Specific  words  are,  as 
a  rule,  concrete;  generic,  abstract.  Sound  is  ge- 
neric; creak,  buzz,  slam,  clank,  crash,  roar,  scream, 
rustle,  and  so  forth,  are  specific.  Animal,  plant, 
flower,  man,  are  generic;  fox,  ivy,  rose,  John  Brown, 
are  specific.  Most  of  our  general  and  abstract  words 
are  of  classical  origin ;  most  of  our  specific,  concrete 
words  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  birth.  Each  class  has  its 
special  uses. 

By  sometimes  substituting  specific  for  generic 
terms,  a  writer  can  make  his  diction  more  graphic 
and  animated.  Specific  words,  being  narrower  and 
more  sensuous  than  generic  words,  are  more  easily 
grasped.  They  suggest  mental  pictures  and  images. 
They  summon  the  eye  or  the  ear  to  assist  the  mind 
in  the  work  of  interpreting  them.  Being  more  fa- 
miliar to  most  persons,  they  are  necessarily  more  in- 
teresting than  their  abstract  neighbors. 

To  say,  "The  crescent  is  waning  before  the  cross," 
is  more  animated  than  "Mohammedanism  is  disap- 
pearing before  the  progress  of  Christianity."  The 
Psalmist  might  have  exclaimed,  "Thou  dost  pre- 
serve me,"  "protect  me,"  "befriend  me,"  but  how 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  207 

much  more  forcefully  he  expressed  the  same 
thoughts  by  saying,  "Thou  art  my  rock,"  "my 
tower,"  "my  fortress,"  "my  shield."  How  much 
more  vivid  is  "He  fought  like  a  tiger"  than  "He 
fought  like  an  animal."  Jesus  uses  the  lily  as  repre- 
sentative of  all  flowers  when  He  says,  "Consider  the 
lilies,  how  they  grow,"  etc. 

What  a  mental  picture  is  evoked  by  the  words, 
"In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread." 
How  indistinct  in  comparison  are  the  words,  "By 
hard  work  shalt  thou  earn  the  food  thou  eatest." 

EXERCISE  XIV 

Point  out  the  specific  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences. Substitute  for  each  a  generic  word  of  sim- 
ilar meaning,  and  note  the  loss  of  vividness: 

1.  Take  My  yoke  upon  you,  and  learn  of  Me. 
2.  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth.  3.  Cincinnatus  fol- 
lowed the  plow.  4.  The  palace  should  not  frown  on 
the  cottage.  5.  Gray  hairs  should  be  respected.  6. 
They  strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel.  7.  I 
told  him  to  his  beard  that  he  had  deceived  me.  8. 
There  are  tongues  in  trees,  sermons  in  stones,  books 
in  brooks,  and  good  in  everything.  9.  Strike  while 
the  iron  is  hot.  10.  She  was  a  sprightly  maid  of 
sixteen  summers.  11.  The  pulpit  and  the  bench 
should  be  above  suspicion.  12.  Strike  for  your  altars 
and  your  fires.  13.  Fiercely  he  brandished  his  glit- 
tering steel.  14.  The  bullet  should  give  way  to  the 
ballot.     15.  In  these  days  bayonets  think.     16.  Do 

14 


208  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles? 
17.  The  wolf  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb,  and  the  leop- 
ard shall  lie  down  with  the  kid;  the  cow  and  the 
bear  shall  feed  together.  18.  Instead  of  the  thorn 
shall  come  up  the  fir  tree.  19.  God  shall  wipe  away 
all  tears  from  their  eyes. 

Note. — Nearly  all  the  specific  words  in  the  foregoing  sen- 
tence are   examples   of   the   figure   of   metonymy. 

Definition. — Metonymy  is  a  figure  of  speech 
which  consists  in  substituting  the  name  of  one  thing 
for  that  of  another,  the  two  things  being  so  closely 
associated  with  each  other  that  the  name  of  the  one 
suggests  that  of  the  other. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  metonymy  based 
upon  the  relation  of — 

1.  Cause  and  effect;  as  — 
Gray  hairs  should  be  respected. 

Here  gray  hairs,  which  is  the  effect  of  old  age,  is 
mentioned  instead  of  old  age  or  old  persons.  Old 
age  is  the  cause  of  gray  hairs. 

2.  The  sign  and  the  thing  signified ;  as  — 
The  crescent  is  waning  before  the  cross. 

Here  crescent,  the  sign  of  Mohammedanism,  and 
cross,  the  sign  of  Christianity,  are  used  instead  of 
the  religious  systems  they  signify  or  symbolize. 

3.  The  container  and  the  thing  contained;  as  — 
His  purse  is  his  god. 

Here  purse  is  mentioned  instead  of  its  contents, 
money. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  209 

4.  The  material  and  the  thing  made  of  it;  as — 
He  brandished  his  glittering  steel. 

Here  steel,  the  material,  is  used  instead  of  sword, 
the  thing  made  of  steel. 

5.  A  part  and  the  whole ;  as  — 
The  farmer  employs  four  hands. 

This  last  variety  of  metonymy  has  a  distinct  name, 
synecdoche. 

Definition. — A  synecdoche  is  that  kind  of  me- 
tonymy in  which  a  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or  a 
part  for  a  whole. 

EXERCISE  XV 

Use  the  following  words  metonymously  in  sen- 
tences of  your  own:  Chair,  sword,  head,  foot,  wheel, 
scepter,  bottle,  heart,  death,  press  (noun),  gold, 
sail   (noun),  and  gray  matter. 

Brevity. — "Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit."  It  con- 
duces to  neatness  as  well  as  force  in  the  expression 
of  thought.  All  needless  words  are  so  much  dead 
weight.  To  overload  a  sentence  with  words  is  to 
dilute  it.  Whatever  does  not  strengthen  enfeebles. 
"The  habit  of  writing  compactly,  of  going  straight  to 
the  point,  of  saying  just  what  one  has  to  say  and 
then  of  stopping,  is  not  always  easy  to  acquire.,, 
Sentences  concise  in  form  and  pregnant  with  thought 
are  the  weapons  of  a  speaker  or  writer  who  is  thor- 
oughly in  earnest.  Sentences  made  up  with  "picked 
and  packed"  words,  always  cut.  Brevity  is  not  only 
the  soul  of  wit,  but  the  fire  of  fervency. 


210  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Professor  Mead  wrote:  "Brevity  does  not,  how- 
ever, consist  precisely  in  using  few  words,  but  in 
saying  nothing  superfluous.  A  narative  of  ten  pages 
is  short  if  it  contains  nothing  but  what  is  neces- 
sary. A  narrative  of  twenty  lines  is  long  if  it  can 
be  contained  in  ten." 

Brevity  is  opposed  to  tautology,  verbosity,  and  pro- 
lixity. "Tautology  consists  in  repeating,  with  mere 
change  of  words,  what  has  been  already  said;"  as, 
"He  was  very  fastidious  and  particular  and  hard  to 
please."  Here  "particular"  and  "hard  to  please" 
repeat  what  is  already  expressed  by  "fastidious." 
In  each  of  the  following  sentences  the  italicized 
words  express  virtually  the  same  idea.  Note  the 
resulting  feebleness  of  the  sentences. 

The  teacher  criticizes  and  blames  and  finds  fault 
with  the  pupils  continually. 

The  king  issued  a  royal  edict. 

His  answer  was  vague  and  indefinite. 

The  universal  testimony  of  all  men  is  that  of  all 
poetry  Milton's  is  the  most  sublime. 

He  was  always  employed  in  alleviating  and  reliev- 
ing the  wants  of  others. 

Verbosity  consists  in  using  words  that  do  not 
necessarily  repeat  ideas,  but  are  yet  wholly  super- 
fluous. In  the  sentences  below,  the  italicized  words 
should  be  cut  out: 

Who  doubts  but  that  intemperance  is  growing? 

He  fell  off  of  the  horse. 

Do  you  think  he  will  accept  of  the  gift? 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  211 

I  wrote  to  him  a  long  letter  last  week. 

Being  content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  re- 
fused the  honor  of  it. 

I  do  not  doubt  but  that  he  is  sincere. 

It  is  evident  that  we  must  open  up  the  whole 
question  again. 

The  different  departments  of  science  and  of  art 
mutually  reflect  light  on  each  other. 

They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  city  from 
whence  they  came  forth. 

From  whence  came  they? 

I  detected  its  flavor  without  even  the  tasting  of  it. 

I  shall  not  waste  my  strength  for  nothing. 

Prolixity  consists  in  descending  into  unnecessary 
details, — in  giving  prominence  to  insignificant  par- 
ticulars. A  prolix  writer  does  not  seem  able  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  essentials  and  the  non- 
essentials of  a  subject.  He  magnifies  trifles  at  the 
expense  of  what  is  really  important.  Prolixity  is, 
in  effect  at  least,  a  synonym  of  tediousness.  A 
bloated  style  is  a  heavy  style,  and  a  heavy  style  never 
fails  to  repel  readers. 

Brevity  may  be  secured  by  eschewing  all  useless 
words;  by  sometimes  compressing  a  clause  into  a 
phrase,  or  a  phrase  into  an  equivalent  word ;  by  us- 
ing the  most  apt  of  a  number  of  synonyms ;  by  the 
skillful  use  of  figurative  expressions ;  and  by  avoid- 
ing roundabout  expressions,  or  circumlocutions. 


212  ESSENTIALS  OP  ENGLISH 

EXERCISE  XVI 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,  improving 
them  in  respect  to  brevity: 

1.  I  shall  go  from  thence  to  Chicago.  2.  You  can 
do  it  equally  as  well.  3.  You  and  I  both  agree  in 
this  instance.  4.  Like  all  new  novelties,  the  device 
must  win  popularity.  5.  He  did  not  look  to  see  where 
he  was  going  to.  6.  They  feared  the  consequences 
that  would  follow.  7.  She  is  a  widow  woman  without 
means  of  support.  8.  It  has  ragged  extremities  at 
both  ends.  9.  It  must  have  been  an  interesting  sight 
to  see  the  two  commanders  on  the  platform.  10.  In 
the  universal  patriotism  of  all  our  people  is  the  na- 
tion's bulwark.  11.  He  bears  disappointments  with 
great  equanimity  of  mind.  12.  A  gale  of  wind 
took  off  the  unfinished  roof.  13.  There  is  often  a 
fortune  in  a  new  discovery.  14.  They  all  unani- 
mously consented  to  this  change.  15.  From  whence 
came  they?  16.  The  wrong  was  too  intolerable  to 
be  borne.  17.  The  book  is  so  written  as  to  give  the 
reader  a  sense  of  tediousness.  (This  sentence  should 
be  shortened  to  "The  book  is  dull.")  18.  He  has 
been  heard  to  reiterate  again  and  again  the  story  in 
which  he  gives  an  account  of  the  impediments  and 
hindrances  that  obstructed  his  way  to  the  final  suc- 
cess in  which  he  at  last  won  his  wealth  and  reward. 
19.  In  his  habitual  silence  on  this  subject,  which 
comes  from  his  taciturn  disposition,  he  simply  re- 
veals a  characteristic  unwillingness  to  lay  open  his 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  213 

mind  to  others.  20.  The  different  branches  of  study- 
in  this  course  mutually  reflect  light  on  each  other. 
21.  I  have  got  you  now. 

Reduce  each  of  the  following  clauses  to  a  single 
word:  a.  that  does  not  bend;  b.  that  has  no  equal; 
c.  that  possesses  all  power ;  d.  that  can  not  be  heard ; 
e.  that  has  no  limit;  f.  that  can  not  be  translated; 
g.  that  can  not  be  disproved ;  h.  that  can  not  be  un- 
derstood. 

Climax. — The  word  climax  is  from  a  Greek  word 
meaning  ladder.  The  derivation  suggests  that  a 
climax  is  a  form  of  expression  in  which  the  parts 
grow  in  strength  and  significance  to  the  close. 

Definition. — A  climax  consists  in  placing  related 
words,  or  phrases,  or  clauses,  or  sentences  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  or  intensity,  the  least  im- 
porting standing  first;  as  — 

All  his  books  are  written  in  a  learned  language; 
in  a  language  which  nobody  hears  from  his  mother 
or  his  nurse;  in  a  language  in  which  nobody  ever 
quarrels,  or  drives  bargains,  or  makes  love;  in  a 
language  in  which  nobody  ever  thinks. — Macaulay. 

The  climax  serves  to  impart  force  to  the  expres- 
sion of  thought.  The  graduated  arrangement  of 
parts  gratifies  the  ear  and  stimulates  the  mind. 

When  the  weaker  terms  are  placed  after  the 
stronger,  the  expression  becomes  flat,  insipid.  Such 
an  arrangement  is  called  bathos  or  anticlimax.  An 
anticlimax  is  sometimes  intentionally  employed  to 
impart  humor  or  satire  to  a  statement.     A  climax 


214  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

produces  an  ascending  effect;  the  anticlimax  a  de- 
scending. The  one  waxes,  the  other  wanes.  In 
the  following  sentence  the  ideas  wane,  and  hence 
produce  an  anticlimax:  "He  lost  his  friends,  his 
money,  his  dog  at  one  fell  swoop." 

Note  the  climacteric  structure  of  the  following 
passages.  Change  the  arrangement  of  some  of  them, 
and  notice  the  loss  of  vigor: 

1.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swal- 
lowed, and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested. 

2.  I  plead  for  the  rights  of  laboring  men,  for  the 
rights  of  struggling  women,  for  the  rights  of  help- 
less children. 

3.  We  bid  you  welcome  to  the  healthful  skies  and 
the  verdant  fields  of  New  England.  We  greet  your 
accession  to  the  great  inheritance  which  we  have 
enjoyed.  We  welcome  you  to  the  blessings  of  good 
government  and  religious  liberty.  We  welcome  you 
to  the  treasures  of  science  and  the  delights  of  learn- 
ing. We  welcome  you  to  the  transcendent  sweets  of 
domestic  life,  to  the  happiness  of  kindred,  and  pa- 
rents, and  children.  We  welcome  you  to  the  immeas- 
urable blessings  of  rational  existence,  the  immortal 
hope  of  Christianity,  and  the  light  of  everlasting 
truth ! — Webster. 

4.  Without  it  [peace]  commerce  is  vain,  the  ardor 
of  industry  is  restrained,  happiness  is  blasted,  vir- 
tue sickens  and  dies. — Charles  Sumner. 

5.  The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was 
the  great  hall  of  William  Rufus,  the  hall  which  had 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  215 

resounded  with  acclamations  at  the  inauguration 
of  thirty  kings ;  the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the  just 
sentence  of  Bacon  and  the  just  absolution  of  Somers; 
the  hall  where  the  eloquence  of  Strafford  had  for  a 
moment  awed  and  melted  a  victorious  party  inflamed 
with  just  resentment;  the  hall  where  Charles  had 
confronted  the  High  Court  of  Justice  with  the  placid 
courage  which  has  half  redeemed  his  fame. — 
Macaulay. 

6.  Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and 
of  angels,  and  have  not  charity,  I  am  become  as 
sounding  brass,  or  a  tinkling  cymbal.  And  though 
I  have  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  understand  all 
mysteries,  and  all  knowledge;  and  though  I  have 
all  faith,  so  that  I  could  remove  mountains,  and 
have  not  charity,  I  am  nothing.  And  though  I 
bestow  all  my  goods  to  feed  the  poor,  and  though  I 
give  my  body  to  be  burned,  and  have  not  charity, 
it  profiteth  me  nothing. — Bible. 

Antithesis. — By  placing  opposite  things  or  ideas 
over  against  each  other,  each  is  brought  out  in 
stronger  relief.  Opposites,  when  placed  in  juxta- 
position, accentuate  each  the  other.  The  idea  of 
contrast,  when  expressed  in  language,  is  called  an 
antithesis. 

Definition. — Antithesis  is  a  figure  which  im- 
presses an  idea  or  a  thought  by  bringing  it  into  the 
same  conception  with  its  opposite ;  as  — 

"A  false  balance  is  an  abomination  unto  the  Lord ; 
but  a  just  weight  is  His  delight." 


216  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

The  Proverbs  are  constructed  almost  wholly  on 
the  principle  of  antithesis. 

"Skillful  use  of  antithesis  produces  an  effect  of 
epigrammatic  pungency;  excess  of  it,  an  effect  of 
shallow  cleverness."  This  comment  on  the  figure 
of  antithesis,  made  by  Professor  Gardiner,  is  itself 
an  excellent  example  of  antithesis. 

Neatness  and  compactness,  as  well  as  strength, 
are,  as  a  rule,  promoted  by  the  antithetical  struc- 
ture. The  following  passage  from  Samuel  Johnson 
is  given  in  illustration: 

"Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature 
and  Pope  in  his  local  manners.  The  notions  of 
Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  speculation, 
and  those  of  Pope  by  minute  attention.  There  is 
more  dignity  in  the  knowledge  of  Dryden,  and  more 
certainty  in  that  of  Pope. 

"Poetry  was  not  the  sole  praise  of  either :  for  both 
excelled  likewise  in  prose;  but  Pope  did  not  borrow 
his  prose  from  his  predecessor.  The  style  of  Dryden 
is  capricious  and  varied;  that  of  Pope  is  cautious 
and  uniform.  Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  his  own 
mind;  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rules 
of  composition.  Dryden  is  sometimes  vehement  and 
rapid;  Pope  is  always  smooth,  uniform,  and  gentle. 
Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into  inequal- 
ities and  diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of 
abundant  vegetation ;  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn,  shaven 
by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller." 

An   antithesis  is  not  always  in  the  form   of  a 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  217 

balanced  sentence.  The  principle  of  contrast  is  often 
used  effectively  apart  from  parallelism  of  structure, 
as  in  Byron's  description  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo, 
where  he  brings  before  the  mind  the  rapturous  joy 
of  the  music  and  the  dance  before  the  awful  horrors 
of  the  battle  broke  upon  the  revelers.  The  piquancy 
of  the  following  sentence  is  the  result  chiefly  of  bold 
contrast ;  yet  the  sentence  is  not  properly  a  balance. 
It  was  uttered  by  DeBray,  the  Huguenot  martyr. 
"These  shackles  are  more  honorable  to  me  than 
golden  rings:  when  I  hear  their  clank,  methinks  I 
listen  to  the  music  of  sweet  voices  and  the  tinkling 
of  lutes." 

Hyperbole. — Strong  feeling  sometimes  expresses 
itself  in  exaggeration,  not  to  deceive,  but  to  impress 
the  reader,  as  when  David  exclaims,  "Rivers  of 
water  run  down  my  eyes  because  they  keep  not 
Thy  law."  An  exaggerated  statement  of  this  kind 
is  known  by  the  term  Hyperbole.  Of  Saul  and  Jona- 
than David  said,  "They  were  swifter  than  eagles, 
they  were  stronger  than  lions."  In  Shakespeare  we 
have,  "Falstaff,  thou  globe  of  flesh,  spotted  o'er  with 
continents  of  sin."  Macaulay  writes:  "Somebody 
has  said  of  the  boldest  figure  in  rhetoric,  the  hy- 
perbole, that  it  lies  without  deceiving." 

Its  use  has  sometimes  a  humorous  effect,  as  when 
Irving  says  of  the  schoolmaster  of  Sleepy  Hollow: 
"His   hands   dangled    a   mile   out   of   his    sleeves." 

Again:  "It  requires  a  surgical  operation  to  get  a 
joke  well  into  a  Scotch  understanding." 


218  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

All  trite  or  forced  hyperboles  serve  only  to  deaden 
the  interest  of  the  reader.  When  used  too  fre- 
quently they  lose  their  force. 

The  Epigram. — Another  figure  that  tends  to  make 
discourse  keen  and  vivid  is  the  epigram.  The  term 
is  applied  to  any  terse,  pointed  saying  having  the 
nature  of  a  proverb.  The  more  pungent  epigrams 
are  those  in  which  there  is  an  apparent  contradic- 
tion between  the  form  of  the  language  and  the  mean- 
ing really  conveyed.  An  epigram  of  the  latter  sort 
has  the  nature  of  a  paradox.  The  following  stanza 
will  help  us  grasp  the  spirit  of  the  epigram : 
"An  epigram  should  be,  if  right, 
Short,  simple,  pointed,  keen,  and  bright, — 

A  lively  little  thing! 
Like  wasp,  with  taper  body,  bound 
By  lines — not  many — neat  and  round; 
All  ending  in  a  sting." 

EXERCISE  XVII 

Reflect  on  the  following  examples  of  epigram  until 
you  catch  their  significance.  Notice  the  play  on 
words  in  some  of  them.  Point  out  all  other  figures 
of  speech  that  you  detect: 

1.  Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

2.  The  favorite  has  no  friends. 

3.  Hasten  slowly. 

4.  When  I  am  weak,  then  am  I  strong. — Paul. 

5.  When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  219 

6.  By  indignities  men  come  to  dignities. 

7.  Never  less  alone  than  when  alone. 

8.  It  is  a  custom  more  honored  in  the  breach  than 
in  the  observance. 

9.  Hell  is  paved  with  good  intentions. 

10.  He  is  richest  who  is  content  with  the  least. 

11.  A  remedy  worse  than  the  disease. 

12.  Beauty,  when  unadorned,  adorned  the  most. 

13.  Failures  are  the  pillars  of  success. 

14.  While  we  look  not  at  the  things  which  are 
seen,  but  at  the  things  which  are  not  seen. — Paul. 

15.  Cowards  die  many  times  before  their  deaths ; 
the  valiant  taste  death  but  once. — Shakespeare. 

16.  No  pain,  no  pleasure. 

17.  In  order  to  be  as  good  as  our  forefathers  were, 
we  must  be  better. — Wendell  Phillips. 

18.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourself  unknown. 

19.  That  which  is  everybody's  business  is  no- 
body's business. — Izaak  Walton. 

20.  Conspicuous  for  its  absence. 

21.  Discretion  is  the  better  part  of  valor. 

It  should  be  observed  that  epigrams  need  the 
emphasis  of  infrequency.  Where  they  abound  they 
are  seldom  found. 

Interrogation. — A  common  mode  of  promoting 
energy  of  expression  is  to  give  sentences  occasionally 
the  interrogative  form  instead  of  the  declarative. 
Such  a  question  is  not  asked  for  information.  It  is 
simply  an  emphatic  way  of  affirming  or  denying 
something.    It  is  generally  referred  to  as  the  figure 


220  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

of  Interrogation.  The  judicious  use  of  this  figure 
helps  to  insure  variety  of  sentence  structure,  and 
thus  relieve  monotony  of  expression. 

If  Jesus  had  said,  "The  life  is  more  than  meat,  and 
the  body  is  more  than  raiment,"  He  would  have  ex- 
pressed the  thought  clearly,  but  not  so  forcefully  as 
He  did  by  putting  the  affirmation  thus :  "Is  not  the 
life  more  than  meat,  and  the  body  than  raiment?" 
Paul's  questions,  "Who  goeth  a  warfare  any  time 
at  his  own  charges?  who  planteth  a  vineyard,  and 
eateth  not  the  fruit  thereof?"  are  an  emphatic  way 
of  saying,  "No  man  goeth  a  warfare  any  time  at 
his  own  charges;  no  man  planteth  a  vineyard  and 
eateth  not  the  fruit  thereof." 

What  a  strong  denial  is  expressed  in,  "Can  the 
Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots  ?" 
How  emphatic  is  Patrick  Henry's  denial,  when  put 
thus :  "Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?"  "Who 
shall  lay  anything  to  the  charge  of  God's  elect?"  is 
a  vigorous  way  of  saying,  "No  one  shall  lay  any- 
thing to  the  charge  of  God's  elect." 

The  literature  of  oratory,  as  well  as  sacred  litera- 
ture, is  replete  with  questions  used  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  point  and  animation  to  language. 

Rhetorical  Exclamation. — When  an  exclama- 
tion is  used  for  rhetorical  effect,  it  is  sometimes 
called  a  figure  of  exclamation,  or  a  rhetorical  ex- 
clamation: as  — 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  221 

What  a  piece  of  work  is  man!  how  noble  in  rea- 
son! how  infinite  in  faculties;  in  form  and  moving, 
how  express  and  admirable!  in  action,  how  like  an 
angel!  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god!  the  beauty 
of  the  world!  the  paragon  of  animals! — Shake- 
speare. 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

Change  each  of  the  following  rhetorical  interroga- 
tions and  exclamations  to  the  form  of  a  statement, 
and  notice  whether  it  gains  or  loses  in  effectiveness: 

1.  Was  there  ever  anything  so  delightful? 

2.  How  bright  and  happy  Eden  must  have  been! 

3.  And  yet  what  harmony  was  in  him!  what 
music  even  in  his  discords! 

4.  How  quick  the  change  from  joy  to  woe! 
How  check'rd  is  our  lot  below ! 

5.  Is  this  a  time  to  be  gloomy  and  sad, 

When  our  Mother  Nature  laughs  around, 
And  even  the  deep  blue  heavens  look  glad, 
And  gladness  breathes  from  the  blossoming 
ground  ? 

— Bryant. 

6.  What  fellowship  hath  righteousness  with  un- 
righteousness ?  and  what  communion  hath  light  with 
darkness  ?  and  what  concord  hath  Christ  with  Belial  ? 
or  what  part  hath  he  that  believeth  with  an  in- 
fidel?—Bible. 


222  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

7.  And  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June? 
Then,  if  ever,  come  perfect  days. 

— Lowell. 

8.  How  weary,  stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable 
Seem  to  me  all  the  uses  of  this  world ! 

— Shakespeare. 

Irony — Definition. — Irony  is  a  kind  of  sarcasm 
so  expressed  that  the  language,  taken  literally,  ex- 
presses the  opposite  of  what  is  intended ;  as  — 

"And  it  came  to  pass  at  noon,  that  Elijah  mocked 
them,  and  said,  Cry  aloud:  for  he  is  a  god;  either 
he  is  talking,  or  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey, 
or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked. " 
— Bible. 

The  following  stanza  from  Whittier  is  a  typical 
example  of  irony: 

What  has  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done? 
Has  murder   stained   his   hands  with   gore? 

Not  so;  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one — 
God  made  the  old  man  poor. 

Explain  the  irony  in  the  eleventh  verse  of  Exodus 
14,  and  in  the  second  verse  of  Job  12. 

Inverted  Order. — It  is  desirable,  sometimes,  to 
throw  into  striking  prominence  a  particular  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  of  a  sentence.  This  is  done  by 
placing  such  element  in  the  most  emphatic  posi- 
tion in  the  sentence.  Any  element  of  a  sentence  is 
thrown  into  relief  by  placing  it  out  of  its  ordinary 
position.    By  this  means  we  can  throw  the  emphasis 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  223 

on  almost  any  part  of  the  sentence.  Such  a  change 
of  position  is  called  inversion. 

The  most  emphatic  places  in  a  sentence  are  the 
beginning  and  the  end.  These  places  catch  the  eye 
most  readily.  At  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or 
a  clause  is  the  ordinary  position  of  the  subject;  at 
the  end,  that  of  the  predicate.  Hence,  the  subject 
is  emphasized  by  being  placed  near  or  at  the  close 
of  the  sentence;  the  predicate  by  being  placed  at 
the  beginning.  The  predicate  adjective,  or  the  ob- 
ject of  a  verb  may  be  placed  before  the  verb;  the 
modifier  after  the  noun  modified,  etc.  The  princi- 
ple of  emphasis  may  be  stated  thus:  Give  the  im- 
portant elements  of  the  sentence  the  important 
places. 

Of  this  principle  the  translators  of  the  Bible  often 
availed  themselves;  as,  "Blessed  is  He  that  cometh 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord,"  and  "Silver  and  gold 
have  I  none;  but  such  as  I  have  give  I  thee."  How 
much  these  sentences  would  be  enfeebled  by  alter- 
ing the  arrangement  into,  "He  that  cometh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord  is  blessed,"  and  "I  have  neither 
silver  nor  gold,  but  I  give  thee  what  I  have."  See, 
also,  the  beatitudes,  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Matthew. 

Note  the  distinction  given  to  the  adverbs  on  and 
forward  in  this  sentence  by  putting  them  before 
their  respective  verbs:  "On  swept  the  infantry — 
forward  streamed  the  cavalry."  How  conspicuous 
the  adverb  seldom  in,  "Seldom  had  such  a  sight 
been  seen  in  Rome."     Compare,  "It  may  seem  im- 

15 


224  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

possible,  but  I  am  determined  to  undertake  the 
task,"  with  "Impossible  as  it  may  seem,  the  task 
I  shall  yet  undertake."  How  much  more  spring  and 
vigor  in  the  second  form  than  in  the  first.  "Great 
is  the  Lord,  and  greatly  to  be  praised"  would  lose 
not  only  in  force,  but  in  euphony  as  well,  if  arranged 
into  "The  Lord  is  great,  and  He  is  to  be  praised 
greatly."  Note  the  loss  in  expressiveness  when, 
"Scoundrel  though  he  was,  he  still  had  some  sense 
of  honor,"  is  changed  to  "He  still  had  some  sense  of 
honor,  though  he  was  a  scoundrel." 

By  putting  the  subordinate  clause  of  a  complex 
sentence  before  the  principal  clause,  the  latter  is 
made  prominent, — emphatic.  Thus:  "Small  though 
the  garrison  was,  they  resolved  to  hold  the  for- 
tress against  an  army  ten  times  their  number." 

EXERCISE  XIX 

What  elements  -in  the  following  sentences  are 
made  emphatic  by  inversion? 

1.  If  ye  know  these  things,  happy  are  ye  if  ye 
do  them.  2.  A  black  day  will  it  be  to  somebody. 
3.  Some  war,  some  plague,  some  famine  they  fore- 
see. 4.  From  morning  till  night,  from  week's  end 
to  week's  end,  his  tireless  brain  was  never  inactive. 
5.  The  most  versatile  and  myriad-minded  man  of 
his  age,  and  one  of  the  greatest  geniuses  of  all  time, 
was  William  Shakespeare.  6.  There  was  a  little 
glen,  green  and  secluded  and  charming.  7.  Upon 
them  came  calamity,  swift  as  the  lightning.     8.  If 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  225 

you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now.  9.  Great 
is  the  mystery  of  time  and  space.  10.  The  only  fit- 
ting name  we  can  give  to  such  conduct  as  this  is 
cowardice.  11.  Thy  eternal  sway  all  the  race  of 
men  obey.  12.  Me  he  restored  to  my  office  and  him 
he  hanged.  13.  Back,  back  to  its  depths  went  the 
ebbing  tide.  14.  Before  high  Heaven  and  in  the  face 
of  all  the  world,  I  swear  eternal  fidelity  to  the  just 
cause.  15.  In  morals  as  in  mathematics  a  straight 
line  is  the  shortest.  16.  Few  and  short  were  the 
prayers  we  said. 

EXERCISE  XX 

Make  the  following  sentences  stronger  by  making 
whatever  changes  are  necessary  to  that  end: 

1.  Homicide  is  sure  to  be  eventually  detected. 

2.  He  must  not  only  reform  at  once,  but  his 
welfare  depends  on  it. 

3.  This  is  indeed  a  beautiful  view. 

4.  Figures  will  suggest  themselves  spontane- 
ously, if  one's  imagination  is  awake. 

5.  We  do  not  grow  old,  but  young,  while  we  con- 
verse with  what  is  above  us. 

6.  They  who  build  beneath  the  stars  build  too 
low. 

7.  You  must  bear  what  you  would  not,  if  you  do 
what  you  should  not. 

8.  Our  grand  business  is  to  do  what  lies  clearly 
at  hand,  and  not  to  see  what  lies  dimly  in  the  dis- 
tance. 


226  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

9.  Abstain,  when  you  doubt. 

10.  I  hate  to  see  things  done  by  halves.  Do  it 
boldly,  if  it  be  right ;  leave  it  undone,  if  it  be  wrong. 

11.  Prepare  for  a  change  in  prosperity;  hope  for 
one  in  adversity. 

12.  We  can  not  write  clearly  unless  we  think 
clearly;  but  we  can  always  express  our  thoughts 
intelligibly  if  we  are  willing  to  take  pains  enough, 
when  they  are  clear. 

13.  The  chances  are  that  force  and  elegance  are 
within  our  reach,  when  we  have  once  learned  to 
write  clearly. 

14.  I  do  not  discourage,  I  do  not  condemn,  this. 

15.  Our  fathers  lighted  a  feeble  watch-fire  on  the 
Rock  of  Plymouth,  two  hundred  and  sixty  years  ago. 

16.  The  banner  of  St.  George  floated  in  triumph 
over  their  heads. 

17.  The  people  perish  where  there  is  no  vision. 

18.  The  age  of  bullets  is  not  over,  though  the 
age  of  reading  and  of  thinking  men  has  come. 

19.  It  is  never  of  our  tenderness  that  we  repent, 
but  of  our  severity,  when  death,  the  great  reconciler, 
has  come. 

20.  The  rain,  the  welcome  rain,  roars  down  the 
gutter  like  a  river. 

21.  Tyranny  begins  where  law  ends. 

PARAGRAPHS 

Every  prose  composition  of  any  length  is  divided 
into  sections  called  paragraphs.     Each  paragraph 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  227 

treats  of  a  distinct  point  or  phase  of  the  theme.  A 
very  short  composition,  treating  of  a  single  point, 
and  not  subdivided,  is  thought  of  as  a  paragraph. 

The  first  line  of  every  written  or  printed  para- 
graph should  be  indented;  that  is,  it  should  begin 
a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  other  lines. 

Each  paragraph  should  be  a  unit;  that  is,  it  should 
treat  of  but  one  point  or  topic  of  the  subject.  The 
principle  of  unity  of  the  paragraph  should  be  so 
marked  as  to  make  it  easy  to  give  a  brief  title  to 
each  paragraph  which  would  indicate  its  contents. 

"A  paragraph,  then,  is  a  connected  series  of 
sentences  constituting  the  development  of  a  single 
topic." 

The  paragraph  may  be  as  small  as  one  sentence, 
or  it  may  extend  over  a  considerable  part  of  the 
subject.  In  any  case,  however,  it  has  a  oneness 
and  office  of  its  own,  being  a  clearly  defined  step 
in  the  progress  of  the  composition. 

The  topic  is  not  always  definitely  stated.  When 
it  is  not  so  stated  it  is  diffused  through  the  whole 
paragraph.  But  in  either  case,  a  definite  topic  must 
exist  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  if  he  would  be 
sure  that  the  paragraph  shall  constitute  a  definite 
step  in  the  development  of  the  theme. 

Examine  the  paragraphs  in  the  following  pas- 
sage.   Give  each  paragraph  an  appropriate  title: 

The  bird  is  little  more  than  drift  of  the  air 
brought  into  form  by  plumes;  the  air  is  in  all  its 
quills,  it  breathes  through  its  whole  frame  and  flesh, 


228  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

and  glows  with  air  in  its  flying,  like  blown  flame :  it 
rests  upon  the  air,  subdues  it,  surpasses  it,  out- 
races  it; — is  the  air,  conscious  of  itself,  conquering 
itself,  ruling  itself. 

Also,  into  the  throat  of  the  bird  is  given  the  voice 
of  the  air.  All  that  in  the  wind  itself  is  weak,  wild, 
useless  in  sweetness,  is  knit  together  in  its  song. 
As  we  may  imagine  the  wild  form  of  the  cloud 
closed  into  the  perfect  form  of  the  bird's  wings,  so 
the  wild  voice  of  the  cloud  into  its  ordered  and 
commanded  voice;  unwearied,  rippling  through  the 
clear  heaven  in  its  gladness,  interpreting  all  intense 
passion  through  the  soft  spring  nights,  bursting 
into  acclaim  and  rapture  of  choir  at  daybreak,  or 
lisping  and  twittering  among  the  boughs  and  hedges 
through  the  heat  of  day,  like  little  winds  that  only 
make  the  cowslip  bells  shake,  and  ruffle  the  petals 
of  the  wild  rose. 

Also,  upon  the  plumes  of  the  bird  are  put  the 
colors  of  the  air:  on  these  the  gold  of  the  cloud, 
that  can  not  be  gathered  by  any  covetousness ;  the 
rubies  of  the  cloud,  the  vermilion  of  the  cloud-bar, 
and  the  flame  of  the  cloud-crest,  and  the  snow  of  the 
cloud,  and  its  shadow,  and  the  melted  blue  of  the 
deep  wells  of  the  sky — all  these,  seized  by  the  creat- 
ing spirit,  and  woven  into  films  and  threads  of 
plume;  with  wave  on  wave  following  and  fading 
along  breast,  and  throat,  and  opened  wings,  infinite 
as  the  dividing  of  the  foam  and  the  sifting  of  the 
sea-sand; — even  the  white  down  of  the  cloud  seem- 
ing to  flutter  up  between  the  stronger  plumes,  seen, 
but  too  soft  for  touch. — Ruskin. 

A  paragraph  may  begin  with  a  sentence  that 
states,  in  compact  form,  the  topic  of  which  the 
paragraph  is  to  treat.    This  sentence  is,  as  a  rule, 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  229 

relatively  short;  and  is  usually  followed  by  longer 
sentences  which  serve  to  explain,  illustrate,  or 
limit  the  topic  sentence. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Farrar's  "Life  of 
Christ,"  observe  how  the  first  or  topic  sentence  is 
expanded  and  illustrated  by  the  long  sentences  that 
follow : 

"There  is  scarcely  a  scene  or  object  familiar  to  the 
Galilee  of  that  day,  which  Jesus  did  not  use  as  a 
moral  illustration  of  some  glorious  promise  or  moral 
law.  He  spoke  of  green  fields  and  springing  flowers, 
and  the  budding  of  the  vernal  trees;  of  the  red  or 
lowering  sky;  of  sunrise  and  sunset;  of  wind  and 
rain;  of  night  and  storm;  of  clouds  and  lightning; 
of  stream  and  river;  of  stars  and  lamps;  of  honey 
and  salt ;  of  quivering  bulrushes  and  burning  weeds ; 
of  rent  garments  and  bursting  wineskins;  of  eggs 
and  serpents;  of  pearls  and  pieces  of  money;  of 
nets  and  fish.  Wine  and  wheat,  corn  and  oil,  stew- 
ards and  gardeners,  laborers,  and  employers,  kings 
and  shepherds,  travelers,  and  fathers  of  families, 
courtiers  in  soft  clothing  and  brides  in  nuptial  robes 
— all  these  are  found  in  His  discourses.7' 

Notice  how  aptly  the  paragraph  beloiv,  from 
Ruskin,  illustrates  the  same  principle: 

"Of  all  inorganic  substances,  acting  in  their  own 
proper  nature,  and  without  assistance  or  combina- 
tion, water  is  the  most  wonderful.  If  we  think  of 
it  as  the  source  of  all  the  changefulness  and  beauty 
of  clouds ;  as  the  instrument  by  which  the  earth  was 


230  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

modeled  into  symmetry,  and  its  crags  chiseled  into 
grace ;  then  in  the  form  of  snow ;  in  the  foam  of  the 
torrent — in  the  morning  mist,  in  the  broad  lake  and 
glancing  river ;  finally  in  that  which  is  to  all  human 
minds  the  best  emblem  of  unwearied,  unconquer- 
able power,  the  wild,  various,  fantastic,  tameless 
unity  of  the  sea;  what  shall  we  compare  to  this 
mighty,  this  universal  element,  for  glory  and  for 
beauty?    It  is  like  trying  to  paint  a  soul." 

Again,  it  is  often  desirable  to  sum  up  the  essence 
of  a  paragraph  in  the  closing  sentence.  By  this 
means  the  gist  of  the  paragraph  is  left  in  the  read- 
er's mind. 

The  last  sentence  in  the  following  famous  para- 
graph, from  Lord  Bacon,  connotes,  if  it  does  not 
denote,  the  thought  of  the  entire  passage: 

"To  spend  too  much  time  in  studies  is  sloth;  to 
use  them  too  much  for  ornament  is  affectation;  to 
make  judgment  wholly  by  their  rules  is  the  humor 
of  a  scholar;  they  perfect  nature  and  are  perfected 
by  experience;  for  natural  abilities  are  like  natural 
plants,  that  need  pruning  by  study;  and  studies 
themselves  do  give  forth  directions  too  much  at 
large,  except  they  be  bounded  in  by  experience. 
Crafty  men  contemn  studies,  simple  men  admire 
them,  and  wise  men  use  them;  for  they  teach  not 
their  own  use;  but  that  is  a  wisdom  without  them 
and  above  them,  won  by  observation.  Read  not  to 
contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and  take  for 
granted,  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to  weigh 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  231 

and  consider.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others 
to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and 
digested;  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only 
in  parts,  others  to  be  read,  but  not  curiously;  and 
some  few  to  be  read  wholly  and  with  diligence  and 
attention.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man,  conference 
a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  exact  man ;  and,  there- 
fore, if  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a  great 
memory ;  if  he  confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  pres- 
ent wit;  and,  if  he  read  little,  he  had  need  have 
much  cunning  to  seem  to  know  that  he  doth  not. 
Histories  make  men  wise;  poets  witty,  the  mathe- 
matics subtile;  natural  philosophy  deep;  moral, 
grave;  logic  and  rhetoric  able  to  contend." 

Regard  for  unity  in  the  paragraph  will  do  much 
to  make  one's  composition  easy  to  read  and  to  under- 
stand. But  unity  alone  is  not  sufficient.  The  sev- 
eral paragraphs  may  possess  this  principle,  and  yet 
be  so  distinct  from  one  another  that  the  whole  will 
seem  broken  or  disjointed.  To  prevent  this  fault, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  special  pains  to  make  the 
transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph  as  easy 
and  natural  as  possible. 

"The  transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph 
should  be  so  smooth  that  your  reader  will  feel  no 
break  in  the  thought,  but  merely  a  natural  and  easy 
step  forward.'  This  result  may  be  accomplished  in 
various  ways. 

"Observe  that  paragraphs  are  not  formed  by  cut- 
ting up  continuous  discourse  into  mechanical  lengths, 


232  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

any  more  than  stanzas  are  made  by  cutting  up 
poetry. 

"On  the  contrary,  continuous  discourse  grows  by 
adding  paragraph  to  paragraph,  as  our  thoughts 
pass  from  point  to  point  of  the  subject  in  orderly 
succession." 

An  easy  transition  from  paragraph  to  paragraph, 
as  well  as  from  sentence  to  sentence,  is  often  ef- 
fected by  the  use  of  such  link-words  and  phrases 
as  but,  yet,  still,  nevertheless,  however,  on  the  con- 
trary, for  all  that,  also,  likewise,  besides,  again, 
furthermore,  moreover,  in  like  manner,  too,  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  therefore,  consequently,  accordingly, 
thus,  then,  so,  hence,  as  a  result,  as  a  consequence, 
presently,  thereafter,  meanwhile,  thereupon,  even- 
tually, to  conclude,  and  so  on. 

The  foregoing  link-words  are  by  no  means  the 
only  ones  that  help  to  make  the  passage  from  sen- 
tence to  sentence  or  from  paragraph  to  paragraph 
easy.  The  more  common  words,  he,  she,  it,  this, 
that,  these,  those,  former,  and  latter  are  often  ser- 
viceable for  the  same  purpose,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
commonly  used  to  refer  to  some  person  or  thing 
previously  mentioned. 

These  connecting  words,  however,  should  not  be 
used  thoughtlessly;  that  is,  merely  to  "fill  up,"  or 
make  the  transition  "smooth."  They  'should  be  em- 
ployed only  when  the  sense  or  thought  warrants 
their  use.  Especially  are  and  and  but  over-used 
by  careless  speakers  and  writers. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  233 

EXERCISE  XXI 

Write  a  ivell-knit  paragraph  on  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing topics: 

1.  The  Practical  Effects  of  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

2.  The  Effects  of  Rapid  Transit. 

3.  "The  Borrower  is  Servant  to  the  Lender." 

4.  A  Plea  for  Short  Lessons. 

5.  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Studying 
Alone. 

6.  What  Is  a  Paragraph? 

7.  Why  One  Should  Enjoy  One's  Appointed  Work. 

EXERCISE  XXII 

1.  Write  two  paragraphs,  the  first  asking  a  ques- 
tion or  several  related  questions,  and  the  second  an- 
swering the  question  or  questions. 

2.  From  books  or  other  literature  which  you  have 
read  recently,  make  a  list  of  words  or  phrases  that 
aid  in  transition. 

3.  Write  a  paragraph  in  which  the  first  sentence 
is  a  topic  sentence,  and  is  explained  by  the  sentences 
that  follow. 

4.  Write  two  paragraphs;  in  the  first  describe  a 
city  street  at  six  A.  M.;  in  the  second,  at  six  P.  M. 

5.  Write  two  paragraphs,  in  the  first  describe  a 
mountainside  as  it  looked  before  it  was  swept  by 
fire;  in  the  second  as  it  looked  after  the  fire. 


234  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

BUILDING   A   VOCABULARY 

To  be  successful  in  public  address  or  in  writing 
for  the  public,  one  must  first  be  in  possession  of  a 
large  stock  of  ideas  and  a  correspondingly  large 
stock  of  words.  Artists  express  ideas  in  colors  and 
in  stone,  inventors  in  machinery,  and  so  on,  but  ora- 
tors and  writers  must  express  their  thoughts 
through  the  medium  of  words.  All  the  great  masters 
of  our  noble  tongue  are  indefatigable  students  of 
the  dictionary,  of  etymology,  of  works  on  synonyms, 
etc.,  but  they  all  testify  to  the  fact  that  the  only 
safe,  certain,  and  thorough  method  of  mastering 
words,  with  their  contained  ideas,  is  in  the  con- 
scientious, sympathetic  reading  of  good  literature. 

Dictionaries  like  ours  did  not  exist  at  the  time 
of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  or  Milton.  It  was  chiefly 
through  reading  and  conversation  that  they  ac- 
acquired  their  wealth  of  words.  "Words  which  we 
acquire  directly  from  a  good  writer,"  says  Professor 
Hart,  "make  a  definite  impression,  and  are  retained 
in  the  memory.  They  have  a  vitality  which  is  lost 
in  the  columns  of  a  dictionary.  When  we  repeat 
them  in  our  writing  we  feel  that  we  are  safe,  be- 
cause we  are  acting  under  the  best  guidance." 

Thomas  Carlyle  made  himself  a  storehouse  of 
words  by  mastering  the  works  of  Samuel  Taylor  Col- 
eridge and  the  masterpieces  of  the  German  writers, 
Goethe  and  Schiller.  Henry  Drummond,  in  turn, 
stocked  himself  with  words  by  absorbing  Carlyle's 
and  Ruskin's  great  books.    But  these  and  all  other 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  235 

famous  writers  and  orators  were  enthusiastic  stu- 
dents of  our  English  Bible.  The  pages  of  their 
books  are  luminous  with  Biblical  allusions.  No 
other  literary  work  comprises  so  vast  a  store  of  the 
simple,  strong,  crisp,  idiomatic  words  of  the  English 
language  as  does  the  Bible.  It  is  here  that  we  find 
the  native  purity  and  vigor  of  our  tongue  crystal- 
lized. 

I  can  not  do  better  than  to  insert  here  the  testi- 
mony, as  to  the  literary  value  of  the  Bible,  of  men 
who  can  speak  as  those  having  authority.  Of  John 
Ruskin,  Professor  Cook,  of  Yale  University,  writes : 

"John  Ruskin  is  certainly  the  greatest  master  that 
the  present  century  has  produced  of  pure,  idiomatic, 
vigorous,  and  eloquent  English  prose;  and  as  the 
first  volume  of  his  'Modern  Painters,'  perhaps  his 
best  work,  appeared  over  forty  years  ago,  when  he 
was  a  recent  'Graduate  of  Oxford/  his  style  was  per- 
fectly formed  while  he  was  yet  a  young  man.  How 
was  it  formed?  In  one  of  his  latest  writings  he  has 
told  us  that  in  his  childhood,  as  a  part  of  his  home 
education,  his  mother  required  him  to  commit  to 
memory,  and  repeat  to  her,  passages  from  the  Bible. 
A  similar  custom,  as  some  of  us  old  men  know,  pre- 
vailed here  in  New  England  over  half  a  century  ago, 
and  I  hope  that  in  some  families  it  lingers  still. 
Ruskin  gives  us  the  exact  list,  twenty-six  in  number, 
of  the  psalms  and  chapters  which  he  thus  learned  by 
heart;  and  as  the  selection  was  in  the  main  an  ex- 
cellent one,  we  need  not  seek  further  for  the  secret 


236  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

of  his  admirable  diction  and  perfect  command  of 
English  phraseology." 

Referring  to  his  knowledge  of  the  Bible  acquired 
by  studying  it  under  the  guidance  of  his  mother, 
Ruskin  himself  said: 

"And  truly,  though  I  have  picked  up  the  elements 
of  a  little  further  knowledge — in  mathematics,  me- 
teorology, and  the  like,  in  after  life, — and  owe  not 
a  little  to  the  teaching  of  many  people,  this  maternal 
installation  of  my  mind  in  that  property  of  chapters, 
I  count  very  confidently  the  most  precious,  and,  on 
the  whole,  the  one  essential  part  of  all  my  educa- 
tion." 

Macaulay  wrote: 

"Bunyan's  English  was  the  English  of  the  Bible. 
By  constant  perusal  his  mind  was  thoroughly  steeped 
in  Holy  Scripture;  he  thought  its  thoughts,  spoke 
its  words,  adopted  its  images.  'In  no  book/  writes 
Mr.  Green,  'do  we  see  more  clearly  the  new  imagi- 
native force  which  had  been  given  to  the  common  life 
of  Englishmen  by  their  study  of  the  Bible.'  Those 
who  desire  to  become,  like  him,  masters  of  our  grand 
mother  tongue,  and  use  it  as  an  instrument  for  sway- 
ing the  hearts,  and  elevating  the  souls,  and  instruct- 
ing the  minds  of  others,  can  take  no  better  way  to 
this  end — to  say  nothing  of  its  higher  purposes — 
than  to  familiarize  themselves,  as  he  did,  by  constant 
perusal,  with  our  English  Bible." 

In  his  "History  of  Elizabethan  Literature,"  Saints- 
bury  writes: 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  237 

"But  great  as  are  Bacon  and  Raleigh,  they  can  not 
approach  as  writers  of  prose,  the  company  of  schol- 
arly divines  who  produced — what  is  probably  the 
greatest  prose  work  in  any  language — the  Author- 
ized Version  of  the  Bible  in  English.,, 

"Intense  study  of  the  Bible,"  wrote  Coleridge, 
"will  keep  any  writer  from  being  vulgar  in  point  of 
style." 

After  President  Lincoln  had  delivered  his  Gettys- 
burg oration,  he  was  asked  to  tell  how  he  had  mas- 
tered his  inimitable  diction.  His  answer  was,  in 
part,  that  he  had  for  many  years  been  an  eager, 
untiring  student  of  the  English  Bible. 

The  exercises  below  are  given  with  a  view  to  aid- 
ing the  student  in  acquiring  a  copious  vocabulary. 

EXERCISE  XXIII 

a.  Embody  in  sentences  the  following  words  and 
phrases: 

Brusque,  pert,  overweening,  priggish,  fish  for 
compliments,  pique  one's  self,  opinionated,  coy, 
sheepish,  without  beat  of  drum,  vaunt,  flourish  of 
trumpets,  tall  talk,  bombast,  on  stilts,  in  high 
feather,  charlatan,  jubilant,  bravado. 

b.  Simplify  the  wording  of  the  following  locu- 
tions: 

At  the  expiration  of  five  years;  extreme  felicity; 
incur  the  danger;  a  sanguinary  engagement;  ac- 
cepted signification   (of  a  word,  etc.,)  ;  exceedingly 


238  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

opulent;  paternal  sentiments;  a  votary  of  Bacchus; 
in  this  melancholy  predicament;  "an  individual  des- 
ignated by  the  not  uncommon  cognomen  of  Smith;" 
the  precursor  of  a  stupendous  atmospheric  dis- 
turbance. 

c.  Explain  the  meaning  and  etymology  of  the  fol- 
lowing.   Learn  to  spell  them: 

Galvanism,  guillotine,  jovial,  boycott,  fauna,  flora, 
July,  August,  palace,  bacchanalian,  saturnine,  mer- 
curial, dunce,  simony,  meander. 

d.  Use  each  of  the  following  locutions  in  a  sen- 
tence: 

Come  short  of;  come  to  nothing;  come  to  one's 
self;  come  to  the  front;  come  to  blows;  come  to 
want ;  come  of  age ;  with  an  eye  to ;  keep  an  eye  on ; 
in  the  mind's  eye;  drop  off;  drop  away;  drop  in; 
drop  out;  drop  down;  drop  a  line;  drop  a  contro- 
versy; drop  an  acquaintance;  drop  anchor;  run 
after;  run  across;  run  down;  run  out;  run  a  risk; 
run  amuck;  run  riot;  run  to  seed;  run  counter  to; 
run  a  blockade. 

e.  Write  the  opposite  word  to — 

Pessimist,  magnanimous,  indigenous,  synonym, 
antediluvian,  peroration,  analysis,  inductive,  nadir, 
trans-Atlantic,  courage,  celestial,  supernatural,  ben- 
ediction, benevolence,  permanent,  positive,  prosper- 
ity, generic,  predecessor,  superior,  opaque,  domestic, 
aggravate   (make  worse),  zenith,  oriental,  promis- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  239 

cuous,  maximum,  absolute,  magnify,  repulsion,  ob- 
jective, homogeneous. 

/.  Use  each  of  the  following  phrases  in  a  sen- 
tence: 

The  thread  of  argument,  poisoned  words;  hatch 
a  plot;  stifle  a  sigh;  the  eloquence  of  gold;  soil  a 
reputation;  a  heart  of  oak;  struck  with  terror;  an 
icy  reception;  to  feed  with  hopes;  the  gnawing  of 
envy ;  the  torch  of  science ;  the  reins  of  government. 

g.  Explain  the  etymology  of  the  following  words: 

Academy,  atlas,  calico,  dahlia,  daisy,  epicure,  hy- 
giene, milliner,  macadamize,  sardine,  tantalize,  tariff. 

h.  Substitute  an  equivalent  word  or  phrase  for 
each  ivord  in  italics,  in  the  following  passages: 

Words  are  embalmed  ideas  of  men.  Acquisition 
of  ideas  furthers  acquisition  of  words,  and  vice  versa. 
To  some  extent  ideas  can  be  bred  by  the  study  of 
mere  words.  The  attempt  to  discriminate  between 
words  that  mean  nearly,  not  quite,  the  same  thing, 
results  in  a  distinct  gain  in  thought,  and  in  power 
of  thought.  Shakespeare's  works  contain  about  fif- 
teen thousand  different  words ;  the  King  James  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible  fewer  than  six  thousand.  To  gain 
new  words  and  new  ideas,  the  student  must  compel 
himself  to  read  slowly.  Impatient  to  hurry  on  and 
learn  how  the  tale  or  poem  ends,  many  a  youth  is 
accustomed  to  read  so  rapidly  as  to  miss  the  best 
part  of  what  the  author  is  trying  to  say.     To  get. 

16 


240  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

at  the  thoughts  and  really  to  retain  the  valuable 
expression,  the  student  must  scrutinize  and  yonder  as 
he  reads.  Each  word  must  be  thoroughly  understood; 
its  exact  value  in  the  sentence  must  be  grasped.  The 
dictionary  is  not  a  magic  book,  ready  to  explain 
every  delicate  shading  that  a  great  author  gives  a 
word  in  a  particular  connection.  In  reading  silently 
it  is  due  the  author  to  read  with  as  much  expression 
as  if  we  were  pronouncing  the  word  aloud.  One 
should  mentally  give  every  word  and  phrase  its 
proper  accent,  should  feel  the  value  of  every  punctu- 
ation mark.  Literature  is  full  of  words  descriptive 
of  things  that  all  have  seen  or  heard. 

i.  For  each  of  the  following  words  write  its  cor- 
responding adjective: 

Aristotle,  charity,  compare,  capacity,  hero,  acad- 
emy, decision,  Hercules,  eulogy,  define,  prevail,  Paul, 
Plato,  permit,  Naples,  pronoun,  metropolis,  system, 
Shakespeare,  pronoun,  Christ. 

j.  Learn  all  that  a  complete  dictionary  can  tell 
you  about  the  following  words,  and  report  to  the 
class: 

Element,  extenuate,  attenuate,  countenance,  eu- 
phemism, parsimony,  plagiarize,  awful,  nice,  forti- 
tude, oriental,  feint,  paragon,  hypothesis,  weird,  pre- 
rogative, clever,  caustic,  pungent,  emeritus,  feudal, 
sequence,  cadence,  categorical,  spasmodic,  fortuitous, 
herald,  plight,  regime. 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  241 

k.  Substitute  an  equivalent  word  or  phrase  for 
each  word  in  italics,  in  the  following  passage: 

Let  no  one  then  underrate  the  importance  of  the 
study  of  words.  Daniel  Webster  was  often  seen  ab- 
sorbed in  the  study  of  an  English  dictionary.  Lord 
Chatham  read  the  folio  dictionary  of  Baily  twice 
through,  examining  each  word  attentively,  dwelling 
on  its  peculiar  import  and  modes  of  construction, 
and  thus  endeavoring  to  bring  the  whole  range  of 
our  language  completely  under  his  control.  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  American  authors  is  said  to 
be  in  the  habit  of  reading  the  dictionary  through 
about  once  a  year.  His  choice  of  fresh  and  forceful 
terms  has  provoked  at  times  the  charge  of  pedantry; 
but,  in  fact,  he  has  but  fearlessly  used  the  wealth 
of  the  language  that  lies  buried  in  the  pages  of  Noah 
Webster.  It  is  only  by  thus  working  in  the  mines 
of  language  that  one  can  fill  his  storehouses  of  ex- 
pression, so  as  to  be  above  the  necessity  of  using 
cheap  and  common  words,  or  even  using  these  with 
no  subtle  discrimination  of  their  meanings.  William 
Pinkney,  the  great  American  advocate,  studied  the 
English  language  profoundly,  not  so  much  to  ac- 
quaint himself  with  the  nice  distinctions  of  its  philo- 
sophical terms,  as  to  acquire  copiousness,  variety, 
and  splendor  of  expression.  He  studied  the  diction- 
ary, page  after  page,  content  with  nothing  less  than 
a  mastery  of  the  whole  language,  as  a  body  of  ex- 
pression, in  its  primitive  derivative  stock.  Rufus 
Choate  once  said  to  one  of  his  students :  "You  don't 


242  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

want  a  diction  gathered  from  the  newspapers,  caught 
from  the  air,  common  and  unsuggestive ;  but  you 
want  one  whose  every  word  is  full-freighted  with 
suggestion  and  association,  with  beauty  and  power." 

I.  The  following  adjectives  apply  primarily  to  ma- 
terial objects,  which  may  be  known  through  the 
senses.  But  each  may  be  raised  to  a  higher  use, 
being  made  to  designate  some  trait  of  character,  or 
some  other  abstract  idea.  Observe  the  various  du- 
ties that  the  adjective  high  was  persuaded  into  doing 
at  the  call  of  Shakespeare.  He  writes  of  high  feats, 
high  hope,  high  heaven,  high  exploits,  high  deeds, 
high  desert,  high  perfection,  high  designs,  high  good 
trim,  high  descent,  high  resolve,  high  reward.  Every 
one  knows  what  is  meant  by  fine  sand,  fine  cloth, 
fine  salt,  etc.;  but  we  may  speak  of  fine  deeds,  fine 
sense  of  honor,  fine  courage,  fine  bearing,  and  so 
on. 

In  like  manner,  make  each  of  the  following  ad- 
jectives modify  as  many  different  nouns  as,  in  your 
judgment,  it  can  modify:  Bitter,  sweet,  rough, 
smooth,  dull,  sharp,  keen,  brilliant,  insipid,  soft, 
sour,  glowing,  hazy,  burning,  transparent,  misty, 
cold. 

m.  Suggest  a  synonymous  word  or  phrase  for 
each  word  in  italics,  in  the  folloiving  excerpt: 

In  every  gentle  and  submissive  way,  Jesus  tried 
to  please  those  with  whom  He  came  in  contact.  Be- 
cause He  was  so  gentle  and  unobtrusive,  the  scribes 
and  elders  supposed  that  He  would  be  easily  in- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  243 

fluenced  by  their  teachings.  .  .  .  They  [rabbis] 
claimed  that  it  was  their  office  to  explain  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  that  it  was  His  place  to  accept  their  in- 
terpretation. They  were  indignant  that  He  should 
stand  in  opposition  to  their  word.  They  knew  that 
no  authority  could  be  found  in  Scripture  for  their 
traditions.  They  realized  that  in  spiritual  under- 
standing Jesus  was  far  in  advance  of  them.  .  .  . 
"It  is  written"  was  His  reason  for  every  act  that 
varied  from  the  family  customs.  .  .  .  They  [His 
brothers]  insisted  that  the  traditions  must  be 
heeded  as  if  they  were  the  requirements  of  God. 
They  even  regarded  the  precepts  of  men  more  highly 
than  the  Word  of  God,  and  they  were  greatly  an- 
noyed at  the  clear  penetration  of  Jesus  in  distin- 
guishing between  the  false  and  the  true. 

n.  Use  in  sentences  of  your  own,  the  italicized 
ivords  in  the  sentences  below.  Learn  to  spell  the 
words: 

A  brave  retreat  is  a  brave  exploit. 
A  carper  can  cavil  at  anything. 
A  custom  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the 
observance. 

He  spoke  in  a  dogmatical  tone. 

A  fault  confessed  is  half  redressed. 

A  man  never  surfeits  of  too  much  honesty. 

Dexterity  comes  by  experience. 

Faint  praise  is  disparagement. 

Temporizing  is  sometimes  great  wisdom. 

Too  much  consulting  confounds. 


244  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

o.  Report  to  the  class  all  that  the  dictionary  tells 
you  respecting  the  following  words.  Use  in  sen- 
tences the  six  words  (of  the  list)  which  to  you  are 
the  least  familiar: 

Meadow,  studded,  illustrious,  benefactor,  dog- 
matic, resentment,  handicap,  machination,  accretion, 
lucrative,  bravado,  tumultuous,  physicist,  liturgy, 
discard,  disparage,  ameliorate,  deteriorate,  inade- 
quate, conversely,  collate,  idiosyncrasy,  lair,  taciturn, 
veracious,  voracious,  venal,  venial,  turpitude,  dic- 
tion, barbarism,  perspicuous,  perspicacious,  lassi- 
tude. 

p.  Use  correctly  each  of  these  phrases: 

Disinterested  motives;  with  bated  breath;  with 
open  arms;  brow-beaten;  influence  over;  influence 
with;  impatient  with;  impatient  of  (a  proceeding)  ; 
hankering  after;  curry  favor  with;  pander  to;  look 
askance;  carry  coals  to  Newcastle;  bear  with;  bear 
up;  bear  inquiry;  breach  of  faith;  breach  of  prom- 
ise ;  breach  of  the  peace ;  take  leave ;  take  heed ;  take 
heart;  take  to  heart;  succeed  to;  succeed  in;  touch 
upon;  touch  at;  taste  of;  taste  for;  trespass  on; 
trespass  against ;  warn  of ;  warn  against ;  responsible 
for;  responsible  to;  pursuant  to;  perish  with;  per- 
ish by;  connive  at;  embark  on;  embark  in;  eager 
to;  eager  for;  reconcile  with;  reconcile  to;  at  his 
wits'  ends. 

q.  State  the  derivation  and  present  meaning  of 
each  of  the  following  words: 

Bankrupt,   sincere,  egregious,  gregarious,   desul- 


EFFECTIVE  COMPOSITION  245 

tory,  canard,  poltroon,  imbecile,  caprice,  right, 
wrong,  solary,  kidnap,  tribulation,  parlor,  scrupu- 
lous, supercilious,  intoxicate,  kind,  prejudice,  dis- 
aster, pony,  idiot,  miser,  dun,  polite,  cynical,  expli- 
cate, astonish,  inculcate,  dilapidated,  radical,  car- 
dinal, digress,  attention,  robust,  parasol,  salient,  at- 
tract, cosmopolitan,  automobile,  ante-bellum,  Boer, 
vandalism,  phonograph,  psychology,  recipe,  kinder- 
garten, puerile,  crusade,  pompadour,  tyro,  the  bitter 
end. 

r.  Work  the  following  phrases  into  sentences: 

A  flying  column ;  as  the  crow  flies ;  come  off  with 
flying  colors ;  fly  in  the  face  of ;  foot  it ;  on  the  foot- 
ing of ;  set  on  foot ;  free  course ;  free  from ;  free  with ; 
a  free  translation ;  free  of ;  a  friend  of ;  a  friend  to ; 
wild-goose  chase;  worm  one's  way;  castles  in  the 
air;  liberal  arts;  liberal  education;  a  prolix  talker. 

8.  Report  to  the  class  the  derivation  of  these 
words.    Work  the  first  eight  into  sentences: 

Cynosure,  fustian,  hector,  jeremiad,  maudlin,  pas- 
quinade, stentorian,  stoical,  tawdry,  canter,  derrick, 
pheasant,  magic,  lynch,  guy  (noun,  verb),  sand- 
wich, bedlam,  quixotic. 


PART  FIVE 


Accuracy  in  the  Use  of  Words 

Dr.  Ralcy  Husted  Bell  says:  "I  can  scarcely 
conceive  of  anything  so  distasteful  as  the  slovenly 
use  of  words  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  pedantic  display 
of  them  on  the  other.  There  is,  however,  a  right 
usage  of  words  which  is  not  only  pleasing  to  the 
ear,  but  necessary  to  the  best  intercourse  between 
mankind. " 

We  must  remember,  however,  that  tact  and  dis- 
crimination in  using  words  can  not  be  attained  un- 
less we  thoroughly  and  sympathetically  study  some 
— the  more  the  better — of  the  masterpieces  of  Eng- 
lish literature.  Nothing  can  take  the  place  of  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  artistic  diction  of 
classic  English. 

Yet  the  following  studies  in  words  will  doubtless 
assist  the  learner  in  acquiring  the  ability  to  use 
English  words  with  propriety  and  precision. 

Above,  Foregoing. — Careful  writers  do*  not  use 
above  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun.  It  is  better 
to  say,  the  aforesaid,  or  foregoing,  or  preceding  ex- 
planation, than  the  above  explanation.  The  use  of 
such  locutions  as  above  mentioned  and  above  in- 
ferred to  has  the  sanction  of  the  best  writers. 

Another  unwarranted  use  of  above  is  to  make  it 
serve  for  more  than;  as,  "above  a  hundred,"  "above 

(246) 


USE  OF  WORDS  247 

a  mile."  The  giant  was  not  above  (more  than)  six 
and  a  half  feet  tall. 

Accept,  Accept  of. — There  is  no  reason  what- 
ever for  inserting  of  after  accept.  One  accepts  an 
offer,  but  does  not  accept  of  an  offer. 

Administer,  Strike. — Medicine,  governments, 
and  affairs  of  state  generally,  are  administered;  a 
blow  is  struck.  A  New  York  paper  reported  that 
"Carson  died  from  a  blow  administered  by  a  police- 
man." 

Aggravate,  Irritate. — Scholarly  persons  do  not 
use  aggravate  when  they  mean  irritate,  annoy,  or 
provoke.  By  her  continual  fault-finding  the  teacher 
aggravated  (say  irritated)  her  pupils.  He  is  easily 
aggravated  (say  provoked) .  To  aggravate  means  to 
intensify,  to  heighten,  or  to  make  worse,  that  which 
is  already  bad,  painful,  or  undesirable.  It  is  cor- 
rectly used  in  the  following  sentences:  The  con- 
tinuous din  and  roar  of  the  street  aggravates  the 
patient's  suffering.  By  adding  falsehood  to  theft 
the  boy  aggravated  his  guilt. 

Agree,  Admit. — To  use  agree  in  the  sense  of 
admit  is  a  crude  impropriety.  I  admit  (not  agree) 
that  he  has  a  better  claim  to  it  than  I. 

Advent,  Arrival. — To  use  advent  when  the  fa- 
miliar word  arrival  will  express  the  idea  intended, 
is,  to  say  the  least,  pedantic.  To  say,  We  shall  not 
go  to  the  mountains  until  the  advent  of  our  friends 
from  the  South,  sounds  stilted.  We  speak  of  the 
advent  of  what  is  sacred,  stately,  or  very  important. 


248  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Agriculturist,  Conversationist. — Agriculturist 
and  conversationist  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  ag- 
riculturalist and  conversationalist  respectively. 

All,  All  of. — Instead  of  'Tom  took  all  of  them" 
say,  "Tom  took  them  all."  Not  "I  like  all  of  them," 
but  "I  like  them  all." 

It  is  far  better  to  say,  "The  agent  sold  books  over 
all  the  state"  than  "The  agent  sold  books  all  over 
the  State." 

Act,  Action. — Both  these  words  contain  the  idea 
of  doing;  but  action  contains  the  additional  notion  of 
continuity.  This  is  aptly  brought  out  in  the  phrase 
"an  action  at  law."  An  act  is  a  distinct,  and  a  some- 
what important  doing.  Action  is  applied  to  what 
is  more  general  and  continuous.  We  say  "a  kind 
act,"  "a  brave  act"  On  the  other  hand,  "Mr.  Roose- 
velt is  a  man  of  action;"  "Life  is  action."  Act  is 
synonymous  with  deed;  action,  with  motion. 

Allude,  Refer. — Few  words  are  so  often  sinned 
against  as  useful  old  allude.  It  is  not  a  synonym 
of  mention  or  refer.  Allude  means  "to  indicate 
jocosely,  to  hint  at  playfully,  ...  in  a  slight 
passing  manner."  We  refer  to  a  thing  when  we 
mention  it  more  directly,  openly.  Refer  is  seldom, 
if  ever,  used  for  allude,  but  allude  for  refer. 

Alone,  Only. — The  following  nice  discrimination 
betweeen  the  use  of  these  two  words  is  made  by 
Dr.  Hugh  Blair: 

Only  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the  same 
kind ;  alone  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  other. 


USE  OF  WORDS  249 

An  only  child  is  one  which  has  neither  brother  nor 
sister;  a  child  alone  is  one  which  is  left  by  itself. 
There  is  a  difference,  therefore,  in  precise  language 
betwixt  these  two  phrases,  "Virtue  only  makes  us 
happy,"  and  "Virtue  alone  makes  us  happy."  Vir- 
tue only  makes  us  happy,  imports  that  nothing  else 
can  do  it ;  virtue  alone  makes  us  happy,  imports  that 
virtue,  by  itself,  or  unaccompanied  with  other  ad- 
vantages, is  sufficient  to  do  it. 

Allow,  Permit. — "To  allow  consents  tacitly;  to 
permit  consents  formally."  An  action  for  which 
permission  need  not  be  asked  is  allowed;  to  permit 
implies  the  granting  of  a  request.  "Permit  is  posi- 
tive; it  signifies  to  grant  leave."  Examples:  "I 
have  obtained  permission  to  make  these  conversa- 
tions public."  "In  America  every  one  is  allowed  to 
follow  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience." 

Affect,  Effect. — To  act  upon  a  thing  in  such  a 
way  as  to  modify  it  is  to  affect  it;  as,  "Our  mental 
states  are  affected  by  our  sensible  surroundings." 
To  effect  is  to  bring  to  pass;  to  execute;  to  accom- 
plish; to  achieve;  as,  "They  sailed  away  without 
effecting  their  purpose."  Effect,  as  a  noun,  denotes 
the  result  of  action;  as,  "What  was  the  effect  of  his 
fiery  appeal?" 

Alternative,  Course. — Alternative  is  a  choice 
between  only  two  courses;  as,  "Heretics  were  offered 
the  alternative  of  turning  or  burning."  We  were 
given  the  choice  of  three  or  more  courses  (not  al- 
ternatives). 


250  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Amateur,  Novice. — Amateur  is  not  infrequently 
made  to  do  duty  for  novice.  A  person  who  practices 
an  art,  not  as  a  profession  or  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing a  livelihood,  but  solely  for  the  love  of  it,  is  an 
amateur.  A  novice  is  a  beginner  in  any  pursuit — 
one  still  in  the  rudiments.  An  amateur  may  be  a 
master  in  his  art;  a  novice  lacks  the  experience  es- 
sential to  mastery. 

Ancient,  Antique,  Antiquated,  Obsolete. — An  ■ 
dent  is  old,  as  opposed  to  modern.  Homer  and  Plato 
were  ancient  authors;  Babylon  was  an  ancient  city. 
What  is  antique  is  in  the  style  of  the  ancients.  An 
antique  temple  may  be  modern,  but  is  fashioned  after 
an  ancient  model  or  style  of  architecture.  We  speak 
of  an  antique  coin,  or  cup,  or  costume;  and  of  an- 
cient laws  and  customs.  That  which  by  lapse  of 
time  has  passed  out  of  fashion  or  use,  is  antiquated. 
The  reaping  machines  of  fifty  years  ago  have  become 
antiquated.  Obsolete  expresses  that  of  which  the 
life  or  force  has  fallen  into  disuse.  It  is  applied  to 
words,  documents,  customs,  and  observances,  but 
never  to  persons,  and  rarely  to  material  things. 

Anticipate,  Expect. — Anticipate  means  "to  take 
beforehand,"  to  go  before  so  as  to  preclude  another; 
to  get  the  start  of  or  to  get  ahead  of;  to  possess,  or 
enjoy,  or  suffer  in  expectation;  to  forsee,  or  to  fore- 
taste. In  the  following  sentence  expect  should  take 
the  place  of  anticipate :  Because  of  ideal  weather  con- 
ditions, we  anticipate  excellent  crops.  The  follow- 
ing sentences  serve  to  indicate  the  correct   use  of 


USE  OF  WORDS  251 

anticipate:  He  would  probably  have  died  by  the 
hand  of  the  executioner,  if  the  executioner  had  not 
been  anticipated  by  the  populace. — Macaulay.  We 
anticipate  what  a  person  is  going  to  say  by  saying 
it  before  him. — Crabb.  In  several  respects  the 
Mosaic  law  is  declared  to  have  anticipated  modern 
science  by  several  thousand  years. — Hosmer.  I 
shall,  indeed,  anticipate  their  fury  by  falling  into  a 
mad  passion  myself. — Goldsmith. 

Anxious,  Desirous. — These  words  are  not  syn- 
onymous terms.  Anxious  denotes  mental  distress, 
great  uneasiness  of  mind;  as,  "Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brown 
were  anxious  in  regard  to  the  safety  of  their  son 
who  had  been  a  passenger  on  the  ill-fated  steamer." 
"She  is  anxious  to  visit  Europe"  should  be  "She  is 
desirous  of  visiting  Europe." 

Anyhow,  At  any  rate. — In  dignified  discourse 
the  colloquialism  anyhow  should  be  displaced  by  such 
locutions  as  at  any  rate,  in  any  event,  be  that  as  it 
may,  or  the  like.  There  is  no  objection  to  the  use  of 
anyhow  in  conversation. 

Apt,  Liable,  Likely. — Apt  is  a  useful  little  word 
which  depends  for  correct  usage  on  taste  and  dis- 
crimination. It  is  often  pressed  into  service  where 
liable  or  likely  should  do  the  work.  Apt  is  cor- 
rectly used  in  the  sense  of  qualified,  skillful,  or  nat- 
urally fitted;  as,  "an  apt  teacher,"  an  uapt  debater," 
"an  apt  solicitor."  The  form  may  be  varied  thus: 
"He  has  aptitude  for  teaching,  for  debating,  and  so 
forth.     A  letter  properly  addressed  is  likely    (not 


252  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

apt)  to  be  delivered.  Unless  you  are  vigilant,  you 
are  liable  (not  apt)  to  get  into  trouble. 

As  if,  As  though. — Reputable  writers  and  speak- 
ers prefer  the  locution  as  if  to  as  though.  Thus: 
The  horse  looks  as  if  (not  as  though)  he  had  never 
been  groomed.  The  oarsmen  row  as  if  they  were 
tired. 

This  preference  is  not  an  arbitrary  one.  Each  of 
such  sentences  involves  an  elliptical  clause,  which  is 
brought  to  light  by  an  attempt  to  analyze  the  sen- 
tence. The  first  of  the  foregoing  examples  is  equiva- 
lent to  "The  horse  looks  as  he  would  look  if  he 
had  never  been  groomed."  Now  substitute  though 
for  if  and  the  result  is  nonsense. 

Answer,  Reply. — An  answer  is  given  to  a  ques- 
tion; a  reply  is  made  to  an  objection,  an  accusation, 
or  a  charge.  An  answer  simply  informs,  while  a 
reply  is  intended  to  confute  or  disprove.  Witnesses 
answer  the  questions  put  to  them  in  court;  as,  in 
such  a  case,  it  is  information  alone  that  is  sought. 
But  the  counsel  for  the  defendant  replies  to  the  ar- 
guments used  by  the  counsel  for  the  plaintiff.  It  is 
better,  as  a  rule,  to  talk  of  answering  a  friend's  let- 
ter than  of  replying  to  it. 

Apparent,  Obvious. — These  are  not  always  syn- 
onymous. That  which  is  obvious  is  evident,  certain, 
real.  What  is  apparent  may  be  just  the  reverse  of 
real;  as,  A  paradox  is  an  apparent  contradiction 
of  terms.  The  Duke  of  York  is  the  heir  apparent 
to  the  English  throne. 


USE  OF  WORDS  253 

Abridge,  Abbreviate. — To  abridge  is  to  shorten 
by  condensing  or  compressing;  to  abbreviate  is  to 
shorten  by  cutting  off,  or  curtailing.  Written  words 
are  abbreviated  by  clipping  them;  voluminous  treat- 
ises are  abridged  by  reducing  the  same  matter  to 
smaller  compass ;  o'er  for  over;  ne'er  for  never;  cant 
for  can  not,  and  so  on,  are  not  abbreviated  forms  of 
their  originals,  but  contracted  forms. 

Access,  Accession. — We  have  access  to  a  library, 
to  a  city  directory,  to  a  magistrate.  The  college  fac- 
ulty has  received  a  valuable  accession  in  the  person 
of  Professor  B.,  just  elected  to  the  chair  of  mathe- 
matics. The  library  has  received  a  large  accession 
of  books.  The  Sultan  celebrated  his  accession  to  the 
throne. 

Study  the  etymology  of  these  words.  Study 
accede. 

At  last,  At  length. — What  is  done  at  last  is 
brought  about  after  many  delays,  difficulties,  or  ac- 
cidents; i.  e.,  it  is  accomplished  in  spite  of  these. 

What  is  done  at  length  is  brought  about  after  a 
long  continuance  of  time.  The  great  Salt  Lake 
temple  was  forty  years  in  building;  it  was  at  length 
completed.  After  surmounting  many  apparently  in- 
superable obstacles,  the  first  transcontinental  rail- 
way was  at  last  finished.  What  takes  a  long  time 
to  be  done,  is  accomplished  at  length;  what  is  done 
in  the  face  of  difficulties  is  accomplished  at  last. 

Active,  Agile,  Alert,  Lively. — One  who  is  given 
to  action,  or  is  fond  of  action,  is  active.    "An  active 


254  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

demand  for  wheat"  is  a  current  phrase  of  the  busi- 
ness world.  One  who  is  nimble  or  quick  in  move- 
ment is  agile.  One  who  is  watchful  and  ready  to 
act  is  alert.  "On  the  alert"=  on  the  lookout.  One 
who  is  full  of  life,  animated,  is  lively.  We  speak 
of  "a  lively  child,"  "a  lively  faith,"  "a  lively  in- 
terest." 

Acceptance,  Acceptation.  —  Acceptance  ex- 
presses the  receiving  of  something;  as,  His  accept- 
ance of  the  gift  was  graceful.  Acceptation  expresses 
the  meaning  with  which  a  word  or  phrase  is  under- 
stood, or  generally  received;  as,  We  must  use  the 
word  in  its  usual  acceptation. 

Acquire,  Obtain. — What  is  acquired  is  gotten  by 
one's  own  efforts;  what  is  obtained  may  be  gotten 
by  the  efforts  of  others.  What  one  acquires  comes 
gradually  to  him  in  consequence  of  the  regular  ex- 
ercise of  his  abilities.  Hence,  knowledge,  honor, 
reputation  are  acquired.  One  obtains  what  he  in- 
herits. A  fortune  that  is  amassed  as  the  result  of 
many  years  of  labor  is  acquired.  "What  is  acquired 
is  solid,  and  produces  lasting  benefit;  what  is  ob- 
tained may  often  be  injurious  to  one's  health,  one's 
interest,  or  one's  morals." 

Accede,  Assent,  Acquiesce. — We  accede  to  an- 
other's wish,  or  practical  proposal ;  we  assent  to  the 
truth  of  a  proposition,  to  the  objective  point  of  an 
argument.  Acquiesce  is  closely  akin  to  assent,  but 
is  less  positive  and  active.    It  means  to  concur  less 


USE  OF  WORDS  255 

heartily  than  is  implied  in  assent  It  means  hardly 
more  than  to  forbear  opposition.  • 

We  can  not  assent  to  a  proposition  without  some 
intelligent  apprehension  of  it. — Newman. 

Take  the  place  and  attitude  that  belong  to  you  and 
all  men  acquiesce. — Emerson. 

'The  proprietors  acceded  to  the  request  of  their 
employees." 

Audience,  Lookers-on. — A  company  of  persons 
assembled  to  see,  or  look  at,  something,  is  not  an 
audience.  Persons  that  come  together  to  hear  or 
listen  to  something  are  collectively  an  audience,  and 
the  place  where  they  meet  is  an  auditorium.  It  is 
absurd,  then,  to  speak  of  an  audience  at  a  game  of 
ball  or  at  a  boat-race.  Persons  at  such  places  are 
lookers-on  or  spectators. 

Authoress,  Poetess. — Authoress  and  poetess,  the 
feminine  forms  of  author  and  poet  respectively,  are 
terms  that  seldom,  if  ever,  need  to  be  used.  A  poet 
is  one  who  writes  poetry,  whether  a  man  or  a  woman. 
An  author  is  a  person  who  writes  prose  or  poetry, 
not  a  man  who  writes,  etc.  Apropos  of  the  words 
poet  and  author,  Mr.  Gould  says :  "Nothing  in  either 
word  indicates  sex;  and  everybody  knows  that  the 
functions  of  both  poets  and  authors  are  common  to 
both  sexes.  Hence,  authoress  and  poetess  are  su- 
perfluous. And  they  are  superfluous,  also,  in  an- 
other respect — that  they  are  very  rarely  used; 
indeed,  they  hardly  can  be  used  independently  of 
the  name  of  the  writer,  as  Mrs.  or  Miss,  or  a  female 

17 


256     *  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Christian  name.  They  are,  besides,  philological  ab- 
surdities, because  they  are  fabricated  on  the  false 
assumption  that  their  primaries  indicate  men.  They 
are,  moreover,  liable  to  the  charge  of  affectation 
and  prettiness,  to  say  nothing  of  pedantic  pretension 
to  accuracy. 

"If  the  ess  is  to  be  permitted,  there  is  no  reason 
for  excluding  it  from  any  noun  that  indicates  a 
person ;  and  the  next  edition  of  our  dictionaries  may 
be  made  complete  by  the  addition  of  writress,  officer- 
ess,  manageress,  superintendentess,  secretaryess, 
treasureress,  walkeress,  talkeress,  and  so  on  to  the 
end  of  the  vocabulary." 

Mrs.  Browning,  as  well  as  Mr.  Browning,  was  a 
poet. 

Avocation,  Vocation. — A  person's  vocation  is 
his  regular  occupation,  business,  or  profession;  that 
which  he  does  for  gain,  or  by  which  he  earns  a  live- 
lihood. His  avocation  is  what  he  occasionally  en- 
gages in  for  pastime,  pleasure,  or  recreation.  Mr. 
Grover  Cleveland's  vocation  is  the  profession  of  law ; 
his  avocations  are  fishing,  writing  for  the  maga- 
zines, and  delivering  lectures  to  college  classes  and 
learned  societies.  Some  one  has  said  that  every  one 
should  have  both  a  vocation  and  an  avocation. 

Avoid,  Prevent. — Avoid  is  not  synonymous  with 
prevent  or  hinder.  In  the  sentence,  "There  shall  be 
no  failure  in  our  school  work  the  coming  year  if  I 
can  avoid  it,"  avoid  should  yield  its  place  to  prevent. 
Avoid  properly  means  to  shun,  to  keep  away  from; 


USE  OF  WORDS  257 

as,  I  shall  avoid  the  use  of  all  words  that  savor  of 
vulgarity. 

Awful,  Very. — Perhaps  no  word  is  more  gen- 
erally abused  than  awful.  It  is  made  to  do  service 
for  all  sorts  of  intensive  adjectives  and  adverbs,  by 
those  whose  vocabulary  is  smallest.  Such  terms  as 
very,  unusually,  exceptionally,  exceedingly,  intensely, 
great,  grand,  etc.,  are  put  aside  for  the  ubiquitous 
awful.  Thus:  We  had  an  awfully  (very)  pleasant 
time.  Harry  is  an  awful  (unusually)  bright  stu- 
dent. He  is  an  awfully  (very,  or  exceptionally) 
strict  teacher.  Isn't  it  an  awfully  (very)  sweet 
baby?  Vulgarisms  so  gross  are  never  found  in  the 
diction  of  cultivated  persons. 

Awful  is  a  genuine  English  word,  and  a  very  use- 
ful one,  too.  It  is  thus  defined  by  Webster:  "Op- 
pressing with  fear  or  horror;  appalling,  frightful." 
Further:  "Fitted  to  inspire  with  reverential  fear; 
profoundly  impressive/'  A  violent  storm  at  sea,  es- 
pecially after  night,  is  an  awful  phenomenon.  The 
scene  on  and  around  Mt.  Sinai,  at  the  giving  of  the 
divine  law,  as  described  in  the  book  of  Exodus,  was 
an  awful  one. 

Bad,  Badly. — Badly  is  often  inelegantly  used  for 
bad;  as,  "The  patient  looks  badly,"  "I  feel  badly." 
It  is-  also  inaptly  used  for  very  much;  as,  "He  has 
wanted  to  see  you  badly."  "We  shall  miss  father 
badly." 

Bad,  Severe. — To  speak  of  a  slight  cold  or  a 
severe  cold  is  good  English  •  but  there  is  little  sense 


258  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

in  saying  bad  cold,  as  all  colds  are  bad.  They 
differ  only  in  severity. 

Belong. — No  one  can  belong  to  a  Browning  So- 
ciety, to  a  women's  club,  to  a  secret  order,  or  to 
any  other  organized  body.  Mr.  Jones  is  a  member 
of  the  Iroquois  Club;  Mrs.  Jones  is  a  member  of  the 
Ladies'  Improvement  Society. 

Better,  More  than. — Better  is  often  inelegantly 
used  with  the  meaning  of  more;  as,  "It  is  better  than 
a  year  since  Uncle  Joe  was  here." 

Black,  Blacken. — One  can  blacken  another's 
name  or  reputation,  but  not  his  boots  or  his  eyes. 
One  blackens  by  the  use  of  slander,  calumny,  and 
so  forth,  but  blacks  by  using  one's  fist  or  shoe-brush. 

Bough,  Branch. — A  branch  is  one  of  the  arms 
of  a  tree  regarded  simply  in  its  ramifications;  a 
bough  is  a  branch  thought  of  as  invested  with  leaves, 
or  with  leaves  and  blossoms,  or  with  leaves  and 
fruit.  When  we  think  of  the  arms  of  a  tree  as  con- 
stituent parts  of  a  tree,  we  properly  speak  of  them 
as  branches;  when  we  are  thinking  of  them  as  lux- 
uriant with  leaves,  etc.,  we  call  them  boughs.  The 
bough  is  sometimes  severed  from  the  tree  and  used 
for  festive  decoration.  The  fruitful  bough,  rich  with 
the  foliage  of  summer  and  the  fruit  of  autumn,  be- 
comes in  winter  a  leafless  branch. 

"Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough"    Gen.  49 :  22. 

Bravery,  Courage,  Fortitude. — Bravery  is  more 
a  matter  of  temper,  of  instinct,  than  of  reason  or 
insight.    Courage  is  the  result  of  reflection  and  con- 


USE  OF  WORDS  259 

science.  There  is  little  merit  in  being  brave;  there 
is  much  in  being  courageous.  Courage  is  always 
cool  and  collected,  and  moves  in  the  light.  Bravery 
is  liable  to  degenerate  into  mere  temerity.  Fortitude 
is  resolute  endurance;  bearing  pain  or  adversity 
without  complaining,  depression,  or  despondency. 
"It  takes  courage  to  storm  a  battery,  fortitude  to 
stand  still  under  an  enemy's  fire."  Jesus  bore  His 
awful  sufferings  with  the  utmost  fortitude. 

Bound,  Determined. — The  use  of  bound  in  the 
sense  of  determined,  resolved,  doomed,  etc.,  is  an 
offense  against  purity  of  diction.  He  is  determined 
(not  bound)  to  win,  He  is  certain  (not  bound)  to 
be  elected,  He  is  doomed  (not  bound)  to  fail.  The 
proper  use  of  bound  is  so  obvious  that  it  needs  no 
explanation. 

Barbarous,  Barbaric. — Barbarous  refers  to  the 
cruelty,  the  inhumanity,  the  brutality,  the  grossness 
of  uncivilized  peoples.  Barbaric  refers  to  the  rude 
splendor,  the  crude  taste,  the  uncultured  display  of 
wealth,  peculiar  to  a  barbarous  people.  We  speak 
of  barbarous  practices,  conduct,  etc.;  but  of  bar- 
baric splendor,  wealth,  pomp,  and  so  on. 

Bestow,  Confer. — Both  these  verbs  express  the 
idea  of  giving.  Bestow  is  said  of  things  given  be- 
tween persons  in  private  life ;  confer,  of  things  given 
from  persons  in  authority  to  those  below  them  in 
rank.  Princes  confer  honors,  privileges,  dignities. 
One  neighbor  bestoivs  favors  upon  another.  We 
bestow  charity,  kindness,  favors,  pains. 


260  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

"The  whole  affair  is  so  petty  that  I  shall  not 
bestow  another  thought  upon  the  subject. 

"Henry  VIII  conferred  upon  Wolsey  the  highest 
honors." 

Bring,  Fetch. — Bring  is  only  to  convey  to;  as, 
"The  farmer  brings  potatoes  to  market."  Fetch  is 
to  go  and  bring.  One  who  brings  passes  over  the 
ground  in  only  one  direction ;  one  who  fetches  passes 
over  the  ground  in  both  directions;  i.  e.,  makes  a 
"round  trip,"  so  to  speak.  The  phrase  "Go  and 
bring"  is  equivalent  to  fetch. 

Calculate,  Intend. — Calculate  in  the  sense  of 
expect,  purpose,  intend,  or  of  suppose,  think,  etc., 
is  decidedly  vulgar.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
observe,  every  one  who  has  compiled  a  treatise  on 
grammar  or  on  rhetoric,  has  condemned  the  use  of 
calculated  in  the  sense  of  fitted,  suited,  adapted. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  in  this  case  the  critics 
are  wrong  and  the  people  are  right.  Our  only  cri- 
terion for  determining  the  genuineness  of  a  word 
used  in  a  given  sense,  is  good  usage.  No  higher  au- 
thority can  be  adduced  than  that  of  the  "Century 
Dictionary,"  "Webster's  International  Dictionary," 
Goldsmith,  Hawthorne,  and  Macaulay.  Here  are  a 
few  examples :  "This  letter  was  admirably  calculated 
to  work  on  those  to  whom  it  was  addressed." — Ma- 
caulay. "The  minister,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
never  gone  through  an  experience  calculated  to  lead 
him  beyond  the  scope  of  generally- received  laws." — 
Hawthorne.    In  the  matter  of  diction  the  verdict  of 


USE  OF  WORDS  261 

either  Macaulay  or  Hawthorne  has  more  weight  with 
me  than  have  all  the  purists.  We  need  to  guard, 
however,  against  making  a  hobby  of  any  word. 

Capable,  Susceptible. — Capable  has  an  active, 
susceptible  sl  passive,  signification.  The  former  is 
often  wrongly  made  to  do  duty  for  the  latter.  Ex- 
amples: They  must  be  made  of  a  metal  susceptible 
(not  capable)  of  being  polished.  We  solicit  for  the 
Dispatch  only  such  articles  as  are  susceptible  (not 
capable)  of  pictorial  illustration.  Note  Kant's 
happy  use  of  susceptible  in  the  following:  "The  ob- 
ject of  education  is  to  develop  in  each  individual  all 
the  perfection  of  which  he  is  susceptible." 

Character,  Reputation. — Character  is  not  a  syn- 
onym of  reputation.  "Character  is  the  sum  of  in- 
dividual qualities."  It  is  the  sunlight  of  the  soul  that 
may  penetrate  the  outer  world,  and  may  not.  Or,  it 
may  be  likened  to  a  candle  under  a  bushel.  Reputa- 
tion is  what  is  generally  thought  of  the  character 
judged  by  outward  and  visible  signs. — R.  H.  Bell. 

Claim,  Assert. — A  moment's  thought  will  con- 
vince us  that  claim  should  not  be  used  instead  of 
assert,  affirm,  or  allege.  "I  claim  that  this  is  so 
or  not  so,"  as  the  case  may  be,  is  clearly  an  in- 
correct use  of  the  word.  The  word  does  not  express 
the  intended  meaning,  while  there  are  several  words 
that  do.  "A  thing  claimed  is  a  thing  which  may  be 
possessed."  He  asserts  (not  claims)  that  the  teacher 
was  in  error. 


262  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Clever,  Good-natured. — Even  clever  persons 
sometimes  use  clever  interchangeably  with  kind, 
iv ell-disposed,  or  good-natured.  Its  true  meaning 
is  skillful,  able,  bright.  Examples  of  its  proper  use : 
Mr.  W.  J.  Bryan  is  a  clever  orator.  Paul  Revere 
was  a  clever  horseman.  Most  American  soldiers 
are  clever  marksmen.  Practically  every  time  one 
is  tempted  to  use  the  much-abused  smart,  one  will 
do  well  to  inhibit  the  impulse,  and  instead  say  clever. 

Condign,  Severe. — So  often  one  hears  the  lo- 
cution condign  punishment  when  severe  punishment 
is  meant.  Condign  means  suitable,  merited,  de- 
served. Hence  condign  punishment  is  deserved  pun- 
ishment.    Condign  praise  is  merited  praise. 

Condone,  Atone  for. — Be  careful  not  to  say  con- 
done when  you  mean  compensate  or  atone  for.  Con- 
done means  to  pardon  or  to  forgive;  as,  "His  friends 
gladly  condone  his  youthful  errors." 

Congregate  Together. — In  the  phrase  congre- 
gate together,  together  is  redundant,  hence  should 
be  expunged.  Congregate  alone  means  come  to- 
gether, assemble. 

Consider,  Think. — Consider  is  very  often  made 
to  do  service  outside  its  proper  sphere.  It  is  not 
synonymous  with  think  and  regard,  as  it  is  made 
to  appear  in  these  sentences:  I  consider  (think) 
him  the  ablest  living  orator,  He  considers  (thinks) 
it  his  duty  to  advise  me,  Lincoln  is  considered  (re- 
garded, or  looked  upon)  as  having  been  the  greatest 
publicist  of  the  nineteenth  century.    Consider  means 


USE  OF  WORDS  263 

to  reflect,  to  meditate,  to  weigh  in  the  mind.  Thus : 
I  shall  take  time  to  consider  your  proposition  be- 
fore expressing  an  opinion  in  regard  to  it. 

Covetous,  Avaricious,  Parsimonious. — An  in- 
ordinate desire  for  wealth,  by  whatever  means  it 
may  be  acquired,  is  avarice;  the  illicit  desire  to  ap- 
propriate the  wealth  of  others  is  covetousness.  "The 
avaricious  are  eager  to  get,  in  order  to  heap  up; 
they  can  not  bear  to  part  with  their  wealth;  the 
covetous  are  eager  to  obtain  money,  but  not  so 
desirous  to  retain  it."  A  covetous  man  may  even 
be  a  spendthrift.  The  avaricious  spend  as  little  as 
possible.    The  parsimonious  man  is  frugal  to  excess. 

Contemptible,  Contemptuous. — Contemptible  is 
not  a  synonym  of  contemptuous.  The  former  means 
deserving  contempt,  and  is  synonymous  with  despic- 
able, though  not  so  strong ;  the  latter  means  express- 
ing or  manifesting  contempt.  We  say  properly :  "A 
contemptible  coward,"  "A  contemptible  sneak,"  but, 
"A  contemptuous,  opinion,"  "A  contemptuous  look," 
"A  contemptuous  mien."  The  student  has  perhaps 
heard  the  old  story  of  Dr.  Parr's  contemptuous  re- 
tort. A  man  once  said  to  him:  "Sir,  I  have  a  con- 
temptible opinion  of  you."  "That  does  not  surprise 
me,"  returned  the  doctor,  "all  your  opinions  are 
contemptible." 

Credible,  Creditable. — Creditable  and  credible 
have  nothing  in  common  except  a  few  elementary 
sounds.  The  former  signifies  meritorious,  worthy 
of  approbation ;  the  latter,  worthy  of  belief,  or  that 


264  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

may  be  believed.  Thus:  He  passed  his  examina- 
tion creditably.  The  junior  students  have  done 
creditable  work  this  semester.  I  am  credibly  in- 
formed that  the  late  capitalist,  Mr.  Blank,  be- 
queathed his  entire  estate  to  eleemosynary  institu- 
tions. 

Continual,  Continuous,  Perpetual. — What  is 
continual  recurs  often;  what  is  continuous  goes  on 
without  break  or  interruption.  Perpetual  means  the 
same  as  continuous  with  the  additional  idea  of 
never  stopping;  as,  The  planets  revolve  perpetually. 
The  tides  rise  and  ebb  perpetitaUy.  If  it  rained  at 
intervals  during  the  whole  of  yesterday,  we  say, 
"It  rained  continually  yesterday."  If  the  downpour 
was  unbroken,  we  say,  "It  rained  continuously  yes- 
terday." "Yet  ...  I  will  avenge  her,  lest  by 
her  continual  coming  she  weary  me."  Luke  18:  5. 
"Carlyle's  'Frederick  the  Great'  is  rather  a  bundle  of 
lively  episodes  than  a  continuous  narrative." 

Ceremonial,  Ceremonious. — These  words  were 
formerly  the  same  in  meaning.  Ceremonial  now 
means  pertaining  to  public  ceremony,  or  forms  of 
public  worship;  ritualistic.  As  a  noun  it  means 
the  system  of  rules  and  rites  that  characterize  public 
worship;  as,  The  ceremonial  of  the  Anglican  Church 
is  more  complex  than  that  of  any  other  Protestant 
church.  Ceremonious  refers  to  the  forms  of  social 
demeanor,  or  etiquette.  A  ceremonious  person  is 
one  who  is  over-exact,  punctilious,  in  the  forms  of 


USE  OF  WORDS  265 

social  behavior.  "Too  ceremonious  in  testifying  their 
allegiance." — Raleigh. 

Chasteness,  Chastity. — Chasteness  is  freedom 
from  mere  gaudiness  and  affectation  in  oral  or  writ- 
ten speech,  and  freedom  from  what  is  meretricious 
in  art.  "His  diction  [Irving's]  is  distinguished  for 
its  harmony  and  chasteness."  The  more  common 
word,  chastity,  signifies  sexual  purity;  moral  clean- 
ness; continence.  "The  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
virtues — chastity." 

Commence,  Begin. — Commence  is  of  classical 
derivation ;  begin  is  pure  Saxon.  Being  the  simpler 
and  stronger,  begin  is  decidedly  preferable.  For 
variety's  sake,  commence  may  be  used  occasionally 
in  referring  to  actions  subject  to  the  human  will ; 
but  in  referring  to  actions  or  movements  beyond  the 
sphere  of  human  volition,  we  must  invariably  use 
begin;  as,  Summer  begins  in  June.  Next  August 
will  begin  on  a  Thursday. 

Custom,  Habit. — "Custom  denotes  the  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  act,  and  may  be  used  of  a 
number  of  persons  taken  together.  Habit  is  the  ef- 
fect of  custom  in  a  person.  Custom  is  voluntary; 
habit  is  involuntary,  often  uncontrollable,  some- 
times unconscious." 

Crime,  Sin,  Vice. — Crime  implies  primarily  an 
infraction  of  civil  law;  sin  of  divine  law.  Vice 
is  an  Offense  against  morality.  Sin  has  reference 
to  the  relation  between  God  and  man;  vice  refers 


266  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

to  the  relation  between  man  and  man.  An  act  is 
sinful  because  it  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  God;  it 
is  vicious  because  it  is  injurious  to  the  individual 
subject  and  to  society.  A  vicious  act  is  necessarily 
a  sinful  act.  With  very  few  exceptions  criminal  acts 
are  likewise  sinful.  When  a  civil  statute  is  in  con- 
flict with  the  divine  law,  the  true  Christian  must 
break  the  civil  statute  in  order  that  he  may  not  break 
the  divine  law  and  thus  commit  sin.  He  then  com- 
mits a  crime  in  the  eyes  of  the  civil  authorities,  but 
he  commits  no  sin;  in  fact  he  committed  the  crime 
that  he  might  not  sin.  A  crime  committed  from  any 
other  motive  is  sin.  The  use  of  narcotics,  morphine, 
alcoholics,  as  well  as  gambling,  and  so  forth,  is  a 
vice. 

Conquer,  Vanquish,  Subdue,  Overcome. — Per- 
sons and  things  are  conquered,  subdued,  or  over- 
come; but  persona  only  are  vanquished.  To  conquer 
means  distinctively  to  gain  control  or  possession  of. 
Prisoners  of  war  are  conquered  but  not  necessarily 
subdued.  A  country  may  be  conquemd  by  sheer 
force  but  its  people  may  not  be  subdued.  To  sub- 
due a  people  is  to  check  or  destroy  all  tendency  to, 
or  desire  for,  further  resistance.  Spain  often  con- 
quered colonists  that  she  never  succeeded  in  sub- 
duing.  We  speak  of  vanquishing  a  foe  when  we 
think  of  our  compelling  him  to  yield,  to  "give  in." 
William  the  Norman  succeeded  in  conquering  the 
English  after  he  had  vanquished  their  leader,  Har- 
old.    It  was  twelve  years  after  he  had  conqx 


USE  OF  WORDS  267 

the  English  before  he  succeeded  in  subduing  them. 
How  long  it  took  the  English  to  subdue  the  Boers 
after  they  had  practically  conquered  them  and  van- 
quished a  number  of  their  leaders!  The  distinct 
idea  of  overcome  is  to  get  the  mastery  of.  What 
we  overcome  we  control  instead  of  its  controlling 
us.  Evil  tendencies  of  the  heart  and  flesh  may  be 
overcome  long  before  they  are  subdued.  We  get  the 
mastery  over  them  and  hold  them  in  subjection, 
while  they  still  clamor  for  indulgence.  Only  death 
can  subdue  some  of  them.  Lusts  that  have  been 
starved  out  of  existence  are  not  only  overcome  but 
subdued. 

Dangerous. — A  hungry  wolf,  an  angry  bear,  or  a 
malignant  disease  may  be  dangerous;  but  to  say 
that  a  sick  person  is  dangerous  is  decidedly  absurd. 
A  person  may  be  dangerously  ill,  or  he  may  be  in 
danger,  but  a  sick  man  can  not,  in  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  be  dangerous. 

Demean,  Disgrace. — To  demean  one's  self  is  not 
to  lower,  to  debase,  or  to  disgrace  one's  self,  as 
many  think.  To  say,  "He  demeaned  himself  like  a 
gentleman,"  is  as  good  English  as  to  say,  "He  be- 
haved like  a  gentleman."  Hence,  a  person  may  de- 
mean himself  either  creditably  or  disgracefully. 

Disability,  Inability. — Disability  is  lack  of  tech- 
nical, legal,  or  conventional  power  to  act.  A  minor 
can  not  become  a  party  to  a  contract  because  of  a 
legal  disability  under  which  he  labors.  Because 
of  some  personal  relation  which  a  judge  sustains  to- 


268  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

ward  a  matter  to  be  adjudicated,  he  is  legally  dis- 
qualified to  act  in  his  official  capacity  during  such 
adjudication.  He  is  technically  disabled.  Inability 
implies  a  lack  of  capability;  disability  does  not  imply 
such  lack,  but  a  lack  of  some  formal  qualification. 

Distinguish,  Discriminate.  —  We  distinguish 
with  the  eye,  the  sense  of  vision;  we  discriminate 
with  the  judgment  or  understanding.  We  distin- 
guish when  we  point  out  broad,  obvious  differences ; 
we  discriminate  when  we  point  out  minute,  nice, 
delicate  differences.  We  distinguish  for  practical 
purposes ;  we  discriminate  not  only  for  practical,  but 
for  speculative,  purposes.  We  distinguish  things; 
we  discriminate  ideas  and  principles.  Hence  a  mind 
that  detects  delicate  shades  of  unlikeness  is  a  dis- 
criminating mind.  It  would  be  difficult  to  dis- 
criminate between  a  discriminating  mind  and  a 
subtile  mind. 

Defend,  Protect. — To  defend  is  an  active,  to 
protect  is  a  passive  term.  "We  defend  those  who  are 
attacked;  we  protect  those  who  are  liable  to  be  at- 
tacked." Swords  and  muskets  are  arms  of  defense; 
helmets  and  shields  are  means  of  protection.  Walls 
and  fortifications  are  built  for  purposes  of  protec- 
tion. A  garrison  fires  upon  the  enemy  in  order  to 
defend  the  town. 

Discretion,  Prudence. — By  prudence  we  fore- 
see probabilities,  and  act  accordingly.  Prudence 
reads  the  future ;  discretion  judges  the  present.  The 
discreet  man  uses  most  wisely  the  tangible  realities 


USE  OF  WORDS  269 

with  which  he  has  to  do  noiv;  the  prudent  man  pre- 
pares for  what  is  coming.  To  act  with  decorum  on 
all  occasions  evinces  discretion;  to  successfully  meet 
probable  contingencies  evinces  prudence.  A  dis- 
creet person  does  what  is  most  fitting,  most  seemly. 
A  prudent  man  is  never  taken  off  guard — never 
found  napping.  "A  prudent  man  forseeth  the  evil, 
and  hideth  himself."  Prov.  27 :  12.  "A  good  man 
showeth  favor,  and  lendeth:  he  will  guide  his  af- 
fairs with  discretion."    Ps.  112:5. 

Deadly,  Deathly,  Mortal. — Deadly  is  applied 
to  that  which  produces  death;  deathly ,  to  what  re- 
sembles death;  mortal,  to  what  terminates  in,  or  is 
subject  to,  death.  There  may  be  remedies  to  coun- 
teract what  is  deadly.  What  is  mortal  can  not  be 
cured.  We  say,  "a  deadly  poison,"  "a  mortal 
wound,"  "A  deathly  pallor  came  over  the  patient's 
face."  I  may  add  that  what  is  fatal  results  irre- 
trievably in  death;  as,  a  fatal  mistake,  a  fatal  step, 
a  fatal  fall. 

Decided,  Decisive. — Webster  discriminates  these 
words  thus:  "We  call  a  thing  decisive  when  it  has 
the  power  of  deciding;  as,  a  decisive  battle;  we  speak 
of  it  as  decided  when  it  is  so  fully  settled  as  to  leave 
no  room  for  doubt;  as,  a  decided  preference,  a  de- 
cided aversion.  Hence  a  decided  victory  is  one  about 
which  there  is  no  question;  a  decisive  victory  is  one 
which  ends  the  contest.  Decisive  is  applied  only  to 
things;  as,  a  decisive  sentence,  a  decisive  decree,  a 


270  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

decisive  judgment.     Decided  is  applied  equally  to 
persons  and  things." 

Disbelief,  Unbelief. — The  mere  absence  of  be- 
lief is  unbelief;  an  unwillingness  or  refusal  to  believe 
is  disbelief.  I  express  my  unbelief  in  what  I  am  will- 
ing to  believe  as  soon  as  I  am  convinced  that  it  is 
true.  I  express  my  disbelief  in  what  I  am  persuaded 
is  false.  I  disbelieve  the  statement  of  a  perjured 
man.  "Unbelief  is  open  to  conviction;  disbelief  is 
already  convinced  of  the  falseness  of  what  it  does 
not  believe."  Christians  disbelieve  the  claims  of 
Mohammed. 

Deceit,  Deception. — The  individual  instances  or 
acts  of  one  who  deceives  are  deceptions.  Hence  we 
speak  of  an  "act  of  deception."  Deceit  is  used  more 
in  reference  to  the  conscious  habit  of  deceiving,  or 
the  disposition  to  deceive.  We  say  of  one  so  dis- 
posed that  he  is  deceitful.  Deception  is  used  more  in 
respect  of  the  one  deceived;  deceit  with  regard  to 
the  deceiver.  Deception  is  therefore  applicable  to 
cases  in  which  the  guilt  of  deceit  has  no  part;  as, 
an  optical  deception.  Deceit  always  implies  inten- 
tion. 

Deity,  Divinity. — Deity  regards  God  as  an  agent 
or  person ;  divinity  signifies  the  essence  or  nature  of 
God.  Divinity  is  an  attribute  of  Deity,  or  of  God. 
When  we  speak  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  we  have 
regard  to  His  nature,  meaning  that  He  was  of  the. 
essence  of  God.  Hence  we  speak  of  the  attributes 
of  the  Deity,  not  of  the  Divinity. 


USE  OF  WORDS  271 

Defective,  Faulty. — What  is  lacking  in  some 
respect  is  defective;  what  has  something  that  it 
should  not  have  is  faulty.  A  defect  must  be  sup- 
plied; a  fault  must  be  corrected.  The  absence  of 
something  right  is  a  defect;  the  presence  of  some- 
thing wrong  is  a  fault.  What  is  imperfectly  done 
is  defective;  what  is  bunglingly  done  is  faulty.  A 
blemish  may  be  neither  a  defect  nor  a  fault,  but 
merely  an  accidental  mark  that  renders  the  object 
less  sightly  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  It  is  always 
on  the  surface.  It  spoils  the  appearance — the  looks 
— of  that  on  which  it  is  found.  A  flaw  is  something 
unsound  in  what  is  otherwise  genuine.  A  flaw  de- 
tracts from  the  value — or  at  least  from  the  commer- 
cial value — of  a  thing.  A  blind  eye  in  a  horse  is 
primarily  a  flaw;  it  makes  the  horse  less  salable.  In 
so  far  as  it  impairs  the  "looks"  of  the  horse,  it  is 
a  blemish.  In  so  far  as  it  impairs  his  normal  vision, 
it  is  a  defect.  Metaphorically  we  speak  of  a  flaw  in 
a  document ;  so  of  "a  flaw  in  an  indictment." 

Difficulty,  Obstacle. — A  difficulty  perplexes,  an 
obstacle  deters,  or  retards  us.  Difficulties  commonly 
arise  out  of  the  inherent  nature  and  character  of 
the  matter  in  hand;  obstacles  arise  from  extraneous 
causes.  When  leaving  Egypt,  the  Hebrews  regarded 
the  Red  Sea  as  an  insuperable  obstacle.  The  scar- 
city of  water  in  the  desert  through  which  they 
marched  was  one  of  the  many  difficulties  they  met. 
Obstacles  are  either  removed  or  surmounted;  dif- 


272  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

ficulties  are  met  and  solved,  or  disposed  of  by  skill, 
patience,  and  perseverance. 

Discern,  Perceive. — To  perceive  is  that  simple 
act  of  the  eye  by  which  a  more  or  less  distant  ob- 
ject is  brought  to  make  an  impression  on  the  mind; 
to  discern  expresses  that  act  of  the  eye  by  virtue  of 
which  one  is  enabled  to  single  out  a  particular  ob- 
ject from  among  many  others  and  consider  it  apart 
from  the  rest.  We  perceive  trees  or  houses  or  per- 
sons at  a  distance;  we  discern  an  apple  tree  among 
many  other  sorts  of  fruit  trees.  "Perceiving  has 
reference  to  objects  of  the  same  sort;  discerning, 
to  one  among  many  of  a  different  sort  from  itself. 
The  same  distinction  holds  good  in  the  abstract  sense 
of  the  two  words."  After  some  reflection  we  are 
able  to  see  the  truth  of  a  proposition.  A  discrim- 
inating mind  can  discern  truth  though  it  be  mixed 
with  error.  It  requires  a  discerning  mind  to  select 
the  wheat  from  the  chaff  of  discourse — to  pounce 
upon  what  is  vital. 

The  word  of  God  is  quick,  and  powerful,  .  .  . 
and  is  a  discerner  of  the  thoughts  and  intents  of  the 
heart.    Heb.  4 :  12. 

Donate,  Give. — Donate  expresses  to  most  persons 
a  meritorious  act;  but  the  word  is  very  offensive 
to  the  watch-dogs  of  the  King's  English.  The  crit- 
ics, to  a  man,  tell  us  that  we  should  say  give,  grant, 
bestow,  or  present,  but  never  donate.  But  the  people 
will  and  do  use  the  proscribed  word ;  and  I  honestly 


USE  OF  WORDS  273 

fear  that  its  use  will  survive  its  detractors.     The 
noun  donation,  they  tell  us,  passes  muster. 

Due,  Owing. — Of  the  words  due  and  owing,  the 
former  is  not  seldom  made  to  serve  for  the  latter. 
Whatever  ought  to  be  paid  as  a  debt  is  due;  as, 
"My  taxes  are  due."  "Constant  obedience  is  due 
to  God."  "It  is  due  to  the  public  that  I  should  state 
the  facts  in  the  case  as  I  know  them."  In  such  sen- 
tences as  follow,  owing  is  the  proper  word:  The 
happy  ending  of  the  Civil  War  was,  in  no  small 
degree,  owing  to  the  tact,  the  patience,  the  wisdom, 
and  the  sublime  resolution  of  President  Lincoln. 
Moody's  success  as  an  evangelist  was  owing  to  his 
unwavering  confidence  in  the  promises  of  God. 
Grant's  rise  to  military  primacy  was  owing  to  his 
iron  tenacity. 

Elegant,  Excellent. — It  is  almost  cruel  to  in- 
flict on  cultivated  persons  the  pain  of  hearing  such 
senseless  locutions  as  "an  elegant  sauce,"  "an  ele- 
gant apple,"  "elegant  coffee,"  "an  elegant  crop  of 
potatoes,"  etc.  Elegant  is  properly  used  thus :  "The 
duchess  was  distinguished  by  her  elegant  manners," 
"No  writer  surpassed  De  Quincey  in  elegance  of 
literary  style."  We  can  speak  of  "elegant  furniture," 
an  "elegant  equipage,"  "elegant  costume,"  or  an 
"elegant  tea-set."  In  some  of  these  phrases  the 
word  splendid  would  serve  equally  well.  Here  are 
a  few  synonyms :  graceful,  refined,  tasteful,  polished, 
handsome,  richly  ornamented. 


274  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Deteriorate,  Detract  from. — An  absurb  use  of 
deteriorate  is  to  make  it  serve  for  lessen,  to  take 
from,  or  to  detract  from.  Thus:  Do  not,  by  any 
means,  think  that  I  wish  to  deteriorate  from  (de- 
tract from)  the  man's  reputation.  It  does  not 
deteriorate  (lessen)  Washington's  fame  to  aver  that 
he  could  not  have  done  for  our  country  what  Lincoln 
has  done.  The  only  meaning  of  deteriorate  is  to 
grow,  or  to  become,  worse;  thus:  Most  edibles  de- 
teriorate with  time.  The  morals,  as  well  as  the 
manners,  of  the  Romans  deteriorated  under  the  rule 
of  the  later  Caesars. 

Dirt,  Soil,  Earth. — No  impropriety  of  diction 
is  more  grating  to  the  cultivated  ear  than  is  the 
use  of  dirt  in  the  sense  of  earth,  soil,  loam,  or  gravel. 
Dirt  denotes  uncleanness,  filth — nothing  else.  Lord 
Palmerston  defines  dirt  as  "matter  in  the  wrong 
place."  Loam  or  mud  in  the  street  is  not  dirt;  but  if 
some  of  it  adheres  to  my  clothes  or  my  person,  that 
becomes  dirt.  Fruit-juice  in  a  glass  or  dish  is  not 
dirt.  It  becomes  dirt  when  spilled  on  the  floor,  on 
one's  collar  or  shirt-front.  It  is  pleasanter  to  think 
of  one's  dead  friend  as  lying  under  six  feet  of  earth, 
than  under  six  feet  of  dirt. 

Enough,  Sufficient. — We  have  enough  when  our 
desires  are  satisfied;  we  have  sufficient  when  our 
needs  are  met.  Some  persons,  though  they  have 
more  than  sufficient,  never  have  enough.  A  man 
may  have  enough  money  for  himself  and  his  family, 
but   not   sufficient  to   help   his   indigent   neighbor. 


USE  OF  WORDS  275 

There  are  youth  who  get  enough  knowledge  and 
training  long  before  they  have  sufficient. 

Enormity,  Enormousness. — Enormousness  qual- 
ifies a  material  object  as  being  immense  in  magni- 
tude; as,  the  enormousness  of  our  national  wealth, 
the  enormousness  of  our  railway  mileage.  Enormity 
qualifies  wrong-doing  as  being  heinous,  atrocious, 
monstrous ;  as,  the  enormity  of  the  crimes  committed 
in  the  name  of  religion;  the  enormity  of  the  out- 
rages committed  by  the  victorious  soldiers. 

Emigrant,  Immigrant. — Emigrants  are  those 
who  leave  a  country  to  find  homes  in  another;  im- 
migrants are  those  who  come  into  a  country  with 
a  view  to  settling  there. 

Entire,  Complete. — Whatever  lacks  nothing  that 
it  was  intended  to  have,  is  entire;  whatever  lacks 
nothing  it  normally  can  have,  is  complete.  An  entire 
work  on  Roman  history  consists  of  a  certain  number 
of  volumes;  a  complete  history  of  Rome  is  an  abso- 
lutely exhaustive  history  of  Rome.  "A  complete 
work  contains  everything  that  can  be  said  on  the 
subject  of  which  it  treats."  A  history  without  maps 
is  not  complete;  but  if  no  leaves  are  missing  it  is 
entire.  A  complete  victory  lacks  in  no  element  of 
thoroughness.  What  is  entire  is  an  unbroken  in- 
teger. 

Equanimity  of  Mind. — Equanimity  alone  means 
evenness  of  mind.  Hence  of  mind  immediately  fol- 
lowing equanimity  is  superfluous.  "He  bore  his 
misfortune  with  equanimity,"  expresses  all  that  is 


276  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

intended  without  tacking  on  of  mind.  The  word 
anxiety  expresses  a  mental  condition,  and  should 
never,  therefore,  be  modified  by  of  mind. 

Equivocal,  Ambiguous. — A  sentence  that  con- 
tains one  general  meaning,  and  yet  contains  a  word 
or  words  which  may  be  taken  in  two  different  senses, 
or  phrases  or  clauses  which  may  be  regarded  as  qual- 
ifying either  one  of  two  or  more  terms  of  the  sen- 
tence, is  called  an  ambiguous  sentence.  A  part  of 
the  meaning  intended  is  doubtful,  uncertain.  A  sen- 
tence is  equivocal  when,  taken  as  a  whole,  it  ex- 
presses each  of  two  thoughts  with  equal  clearness. 
What  is  ambiguous  is  a  mere  blunder  of  language; 
what  is  equivocal  is  generally  intended  to  deceive, 
though  it  may  sometimes  result  from  inadvertence. 
The  idea  of  misleading  or  deceiving  is  always  im- 
plied by  the  verb  equivocate. 

Exuberant,  Luxuriant. — Luxuriant  signifies  a 
flourishing,  unrestrained  growth;  while  exuberant 
denotes  a  copious  or  even  an  excessive  production. 
Luxuriant  is  always  employed  in  a  favorable  sense. 
Exuberant  sometimes  denotes  that  kind  of  abun- 
dance which  needs  to  be  pruned  down  or  restrained. 
A  luxuriant  imagination  is  an  invaluable  gift  to  the 
poet,  but  an  exuberant  imagination  might  run  away 
with  his  reason.  Exuberant  joy  or  exuberant  grief 
needs  to  be  restrained.  In  this  sense  luxuriant  is 
inadmissible. 

Feign,  Pretend. — Both  these  words  signify  to 
mislead;  to  convey  a  false  impression.     Feigning 


USE  OF  WORDS  277 

commonly  misleads  the  senses — the  eye  especially; 
pretense  misleads  the  understanding.  We  feign  by 
false  appearances,  by  outward  demeanor  and  con- 
duct. We  feign  only  what  pertains  to  ourselves. 
The  object  of  feigning  is  to  avoid  the  performance 
of  a  disagreeable  duty  or  to  gain  an  unearned  good. 
Thus  we  may  feign  sickness,  or  friendship,  or  in- 
difference, or  ignorance  (specific),  etc.  "Ulysses 
feigned  madness  in  order  to  escape  going  to  the 
Trojan  war."  We  pretend,  not  by  conduct  or  man- 
ner, but  by  what  we  say.  We  seek  to  deceive  the 
judgment  by  false  assertions,  by  a  misrepresenta- 
tion of  facts.  We  may  pretend  in  matters  pertaining 
to  others  as  well  as  in  those  pertaining  to  ourselves. 
Thus  I  may  pretend  to  have  been  presented  to  the 
Pope  or  to  a  king,  or  to  have  completed  a  university 
course,  or  to  be  intimately  acquainted  with  some 
famous  man,  and  so  on.  The  meaning  of  dis- 
semble is  interesting,  inasmuch  as  it  is  always  the* 
feigned  concealment  of  what  really  exists  in  one's 
character  or  feeling.  If  one  is  jealous  and  pretends 
not  to  be,  one  dissembles.  One  feigns  to  be  what  one 
is  not;  one  dissembles  in  order  to  appear  not  to  be 
what  one  is. 

Foretell,  Predict. — We  foretell  by  calculation, 
or  on  the  ground  of  experience  and  knowledge. 
Hence  we  fortell  with  some  degree  of  certainty. 
Our  predictions  are  based  mostly  on  conjecture. 
Eclipses  are  foretold  by  astronomers;  evil  or  good 
fortune   is   predicted   by   astrologers   and   gypsies. 


278  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

Predict  is  employed  only  of  persons,  while  foretell 
is  used  also  of  impersonal  indicators;  as,  The  mer- 
cury (barometer)  foretells  rain. 

Study  prognosticate,  divine    (verb). 

Forefathers,  Ancestors. — Our  forefathers  in- 
cludes our  parents ;  our  ancestors  excludes  them.  It 
is  said  that  ancestors  is  used  in  a  sense  to  imply 
some  dignity  of  birth.  We  are  children  of  our 
forefathers;  the  posterity  of  our  ancestors. 

Was  Graduated. — Instead  of  putting  it,  I  gradu- 
ated, He  graduated,  They  graduated,  we  must  now 
put  it,  I  iras  graduated,  He  was  graduated,  They 
were  graduated. 

Fix,  Arrange. — No  word  is  more  commonly  mis- 
used than  is  fix.  It  properly  denotes  the  idea  of  fast- 
ening down,  making  secure  by  binding,  making  im- 
movable for  more  or  less  time.  Thus:  He  fixed 
his  eye  on  me,  She  sat  fixed  like  a  statue.  But 
do  not  say,  "He  will  fix  the  furniture  for  you/'  or 
"I  shall  fix  the  books  on  the  library  shelves/'  Ar- 
range is  here  the  proper  word.  Fix  should  not  be 
used  for  repair;  as,  Tell  the  servant  to  fix  the 
fences.  In  the  following  sentences  fix  is  a  vulgar- 
ism: The  sheriff  will  fix  you,  The  lad  got  himself 
into  a  fix,  I  must  fix  up  if  I  go  with  you. 

Female,  Woman. — It  is  in  bad  taste  to  use  the 
word  female  when  woman  is  meant.  Say,  "Doubt- 
less a  woman  (not  female)  is  a  better  teacher  of 
children  than  a  man  (not  male)."     Male  or  female 


USE  OF  WORDS  279 

should  be  used  only  when  it  is  desjred  to  point  out 

sex. 

Gentleman,  Lady. — The  word  lady  or  gentleman 
should  not  be  used  to  designate  sex.  Such  use  is  a 
breach  of  good  taste,  as  well  as  of  verbal  propriety. 
In  the  following  sentences  gentleman  or  gentlemen 
should  yield  its  place  to  man  or  men;  and  lady  or 
ladies,  to  woman  or  women:  Gentlemen  should  be 
as  much  interested  in  the  growing  of  flowers  as  are 
ladies.  "If  we  were  gentlemen/'  remarked  one  of 
the  ladies,  "we  would  all  go  to  the  front."  In  this 
country  gentlemen  are  expected  to  conform  to  the 
same  moral  standards  as.  are  ladies. 

"In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,"  says  a  writer  in  the 
New  York  Sun,  "the  use  of  gentleman  for  man  is  a 
case  of  affectation  founded  neither  in  education  nor 
politeness." 

Genius,  Talent. — Genius  denotes  the  highest  or- 
der of  human  mentality.  It  is  essentially  original 
and  independent  in  its  operations.  It  is  a  strong 
inborn  bent  to  some  occupation  in  which  the  creative 
faculty,  or  the  imagination  in  its  highest  manifesta- 
tions, is  largely  employed.  Genius  originates,  cre- 
ates, and  makes  new  combinations.  Talent  imitates 
faithfully;  copies  correctly;  evolves,  applies,  and 
executes  skillfully.  By  virtue  of  its  inherent  force, 
genius  is  measurably  independent  of  rules;  i.  e.,  of 
their  specific  recognition.  It  recognizes  and  applies 
them  intuitively,  as  it  were.  Talent  is  special  capac- 
ity for  learning  rules,  and  power  to  employ  them 


280  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

wisely.  Not  only  the  foremost  poets,  painters,  com- 
posers, etc.,  but  also  the*  greatest  warriors,  diplo- 
mats, and  inventors,  are  called  geniuses.  Historians, 
mathematicians,  linguists,  statesmen,  and  scientists, 
are  usually  persons  of  talent. 

Gain,  Win. — Winning  is  a  particular  kind  of  gain- 
ing. By  attention  to  business  we  may  gain  a  for- 
tune; by  chance,  luck,  or  artifice  we  may  win  a 
fortune.  Win  generally  implies  competition;  gain 
does  not,  as  a  rule.  By  our  industry,  faithfulness, 
and  helpfulness  we  gain  friends.  We  sometimes 
win  friends  without  effort. 

Idle,  Indolent. — An  idle  boy  is  not  an  altogether 
inactive  boy,  but  one  who  occupies  his  time  use- 
lessly, or  with  frivolities.  An  indolent  boy  is 
strongly  averse  to  effort  of  any  kind.  The  idle  boy 
plays  when  he  should  work  or  apply  himself  to  study. 
The  indolent  boy  lounges  about  or  sleeps  when  he 
should  work  or  study.  The  idle  boy  lacks  steadiness 
or  purpose;  the  indolent  lacks  the  disposition  to 
exertion.  Idleness  is  further  used  in  the  sense  of 
forced  inactivity ;  as,  Men  unable  to  get  employment 
are  idle.  "Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle* 
They  say  unto  him,  Because  no  man  hath  hired  us." 
Matt.  20 :  6,  7.  Idle  originally  meant  unprofitable ; 
as,  "idle  fields,"  that  is,  fields  not  under  cultivation. 
Lazy  usually  expresses  a  slothful  habit  of  body,  to 
which  physical  effort  is  hateful.  It  is  a  stronger 
and  more  disparaging  term  than  indolent. 


USE  OF  WORDS  281 

Inquiring,  Inquisitive. — An  inquiring  mind  is 
indispensable  to  successful  research.  An  inquisitive 
temper  is  not  an  unmixed  blessing.  Inquisitive  is 
of  the  same  derivation  as  inquiring,  but  it  has  from 
usage  an  element  of  intrusiveness  or  prying. 

Liberty,  Freedom. — Often  used  interchangeably, 
these  words  are  distinct  in  some  of  their  applica- 
tions. Liberty  implies  a  reference  to  former  re- 
straint or  bondage ;  freedom  signifies  the  simple,  un- 
repressed  exercise  of  our  powers.  Liberty  carries 
with  it  the  idea  of  being  no  longer  captive ;  freedom, 
that  of  nothing  obstructing  the  natural  exercise  of 
our  powers.  The  slave,  set  at  liberty,  enjoys  that 
freedom  which  his  master  has  always  enjoyed. 
Freedom  sometimes  means  in  an  unrestrained  man- 
ner ;  as,  "They  played,  worked,  and  studied  with  free- 
dom^ Here  liberty  would  not  be  admissible.  "The 
liberty  of  the  press  is  our  great  security  for  freedom 
of  thought." 

Marine,  Maritime,  Naval,  Nautical. — The  first 
two  words  both  mean  belonging  to  the  sea,  but  un- 
der different  aspects;  marine,  to  the  sea  in  its 
natural  aspect  or  state;  as,  marine  deposits,  marine 
plants,  animals,  etc. ;  maritime,  to  the  sea  as  related 
to  man,  or  as  employed  by  man;  as,  a  maritime 
people,  or  nation,  maritime  trade,  maritime  occu- 
pations. Naval  expresses  the  idea  of  belonging  to 
ships;  as,  a  naval  life,  naval  armament,  the  naval 
profession.    That  which  pertains  to  the  art  of  navi- 


282  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

gation  is  designated  as  nautical;  as,  nautical  al- 
manac, nautical  instrument,  nautical  skill. 

Intrude,  Obtrude. — To  go  where  one  is  not  de- 
sired, or  has  not  been  invited  to  go,  or  has  no  right 
to  go,  is  to  intrude.  To  thrust  one's  self  imperti- 
nently upon  a  company,  or  upon  the  attention  of 
another,  is  to  obtrude  one's  self.  One  who  obtrudes 
is  usually  irrepressible  in  his  remarks;  one  who 
intrudes  may  appear  shy  and  taciturn.  Obtrude 
is  also  used  in  an  impersonal  sense;  as,  Objects 
obtrude  themselves  upon  our  senses,  whether  we 
will  or  not. 

Motherly,  Maternal. — This  pair  of  words  is 
formed  from  corresponding  roots  in  Saxon  and 
Latin;  the  Latin  word  maternal  being  the  more 
polite  and  cold,  the  Saxon  motherly  the  more  hearty 
and  cordial.  The  Latin  word  is  used  to  express  the 
office,  the  Saxon  the  manner  and  deportment.  We 
speak  of  maternal  duties,  office,  sphere,  authority, 
and  the  like;  of  motherly  care,  tenderness,  etc.  A 
similar  distinction  holds  between  'paternal  and  fa- 
therly, fraternal  and  brotherly. 

Obligation,  Duty. — Duty  is  what  is  nut  amity  due 
from  one  to  another.  No  man  can  be  exempt  from 
duties.  An  obligation  arises  from  circumstaA 
It  is  a  species  of  duty.  If  I  orally  or  in  writing 
guarantee  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  I  con- 
tract an  obligation.  "An  obligation  is  what  we  bind 
ourselves  to  do  independently  of  our  natural  duties." 
What  are  due,  each  to  the  other,  of  husband  and 


USE  OF  WORDS  283 

wife,  are  duties  because  naturally  implied  in  the 
marriage  state. 

Study  obligatory,  duteous,  dutiful. 

Observance,  Observation. — One  meaning  of  the 
verb  observe  is  to  keep  or  obey  strictly;  the  other 
meaning  is  to  consider  or  notice  with  care.  Hence 
observance,  corresponding  to  the  first  meaning,  sig- 
nifies the  keeping  or  obeying  of  a  rule  or  law,  and 
thus  fulfilling  a  civil,  moral,  or  religious  duty.  We 
speak,  therefore,  of  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath, 
of  Lent,  of  rites,  of  Independence  day.  Observation, 
corresponding  to  the  second  meaning,  signifies  the 
noticing,  the  perceiving,  or  the  cognizing  of  an  ob- 
ject through  the  senses,  most  frequently  through  the 
eye.  Observation  is  also  used  in  the  sense  of  remark. 
"The  Pharisees  were  curious  in  external  observ- 
ances; the  astronomers  are  curious  in  celestial  ob- 
servations."— Webster. 

Opposite,  Contrary. — Things  that  are  contrary 
exclude  each  the  other;  things  that  are  opposite 
complete  each  the  other.  Opposite  things,  points,  or 
ideas  can  never  come  in  conflict  with  each  other,  as 
they  are  mathematically  fixed.  Things  contrary  often 
come  into  collision.  Virtue  is  contrary  to  vice,  since 
it  is  unlike  vice  in  character,  manifestation,  motive, 
and  practical  effects.  Virtue  is  opposite  to  vice, 
since,  as  a  notion  or  concept,  it  stands  over  against 
vice,  as  the  north  pole  stands  over  against  the  south 
pole.  A  thing  or  idea  always  implies  its  opposite. 
A  thing  or  idea  does  not  imply  its  contrary.    "Op- 


284  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

posite  is  static  in  its  character;  contrary  is  dy- 
namic." Contraries  quarrel  when  they  meet;  op- 
posites  are  mathematically  barred  from  meeting, 
and  hence  are  eternally  at  peace. 

Posture,  Attitude. — Both  words  have  regard  to 
the  visible  disposition  of  the  parts  of  the  body.  Post- 
ure relates  to  their  position  merely;  attitude  is  pos- 
ture with  expression  added.  Attitude  has  for  its 
object  the  setting  forth  and  exhibiting  of  some  emo- 
tion or  sentiment ;  as,  an  attitude  of  wonder,  of  grief, 
of  despair,  of  devotion,  of  admiration.  Posture 
implies  no  expression.  Hence  we  speak  of  a  hori- 
zontal posture,  an  erect  posture,  a  kneeling  posture. 
We  are  always  in  some  posture,  but  not  always  in 
an  attitude. 

Pride,  Vanity. — The  proud  man  cherishes  a  feel- 
ing of  self-sufficiency,  self-satisfaction.  Wrapped  up 
in  his  own  estimation,  he  is  indifferent  to  the  opin- 
ions of  others.  While  overrating  his  own  merit,  the 
proud  man  underrates  that  of  others.  He  arrogates 
to  himself  undue  importance  and  worth.  The  vain 
man  is  greedy  of  admiration ;  he  is  inordinately  fond 
of  praise — of  praise  which  he  knows  he  does  not 
deserve.  The  proud-  man  admires  himself;  the  vain 
man  courts  the  admiration  of  others.  Pride  is  hate- 
ful; vanity  is  ridiculous  and  contemptible.  There 
are  persons  too  proud  to  stoop  to  anything  so  hollow 
as  vanity.  There  is  a  species  of  pride  of  which  we 
need  not  be  ashamed — honest  pride,  honorable  pride. 


USE  OF  WORDS  285 

Haughtiness  is  pride  strikingly  exhibited  through 
one's  bearing  and  manner. 

Present,  Introduce. — Those  who  strain  to  be 
fine  often  improperly  use  present  for  introduce.  "A 
person  is  presented  at  court,  and  on  official  occasions 
to  our  President;  but  persons  who  are  unknown  to 
each  other  are  introduced  by  a  common  acquaintance. 
And  in  these  introductions  it  is  the  younger  that  is 
introduced  to  the  older;  the  lower  to  the  higher  in 
place  or  social  position;  the  gentleman  to  the  lady. 
A  lady  should  say,  as  a  rule,  that  Mr.  Blank  was  in- 
troduced to  her,  not  that  she  was  introduced  to  Mr. 
Blank." 

Recollect,  Remember. — When  an  idea  of  a  past 
experience  recurs  to  the  mind  spontaneously,  or  with 
little  exertion  on  our  part,  it  is  remembered;  when 
it  recurs  as  the  result  of  special  exertion,  of  pur- 
posed effort,  it  is  recollected.  Hence  I  say  properly, 
"I  do  not  remember,"  and  "I  can  not  recollect." 

Remuneration,  Compensation,  Recompense. — 
A  person  is  remunerated  for  his  personal  services 
done  to  the  remunerator;  he  is  compensated  for 
losses  incurred  in  behalf  of  the  person  making  the 
compensation.  Or  one  may,  out  of  charity,  give  to 
a  poor  person,  in  compensation  for  a  loss  which  he 
had  unfortunately  sustained.  Hence  we  say,  "What 
can  compensate  for  the  loss  of  honor?"  A  railway 
company  compensates  its  patrons  for  any  injury  sus- 
tained by  the  latter  in  a  railway  accident.  A  per- 
son is  recompensed  for  long,  assiduous,  and  specially 


286  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

meritorious  service.  This  sense  of  recompense  is 
happily  exemplified  in  the  following  scripture :  "For 
thou  shalt  be  recompensed  at  the  resurrection  of  the 
just."    Luke  14:  14. 

Safe,  Secure. — One  who  is  simply  out  of  danger 
is  safe;  one  who  is  removed  beyond  the  reach  of 
danger  is  secure.  Safe  has  regard  to  the  past  and 
the  present;  secure,  to  the  future  as  well.  Security 
further  implies  the  absence  of  all  fear  of  danger. 
Persons  at  sea  are  not  safe  during  a  storm;  they 
are  not  secure  from  the  dangers  of  the  sea  till  they 
have  reached  the  shore.  It  is  the  prerogative  of  a 
Christian  to  regard  himself  safe  for  time,  and  se- 
cure for  eternity.  So  far  as  security  is  a  feeling,  or 
sense  of  safety,  it  may  itself  become  a  danger;  as, 
While  they  slept  secure,  the  enemy  attacked  the 
camp.  We  also  speak  of  a  dangerous  individual 
being  secure  when  he  is  imprisoned. 

"No  man  can  rationally  account  himself  secure  un- 
less he  could  command  all  the  chances  of  the  world." 

Seem,  Appear. — What  seems  is  in  the  mind;  what 
appears  is  external.  Things  appear  as  they  present 
themselves  to  the  eye;  they  seem  as  they  are  repre- 
sented to  the  mind.  Things  appear  good  or  bad, 
as  far  as  we  can  judge  by  our  senses.  Things  seem 
right  or  wrong  as  we  determine  by  reflection,  per- 
ception, and  sensation. 

Silent,  Reticent,  Taciturn. — To  be  silent  is 
simply  to  refrain  from  speaking.  One  is  reticent 
when  he  is  silent  about  a  particular  thing,  or  keeps 


USE  OF  WORDS  287 

back  something  that  others  have  a  right  to  know. 
A  taciturn  person  is  one  whose  temperament  dis- 
poses him  to  silence.  Taciturnity  is  a  matter  of  habit 
and  of  temper.  Taciturn  is  the  antithesis  of  lo- 
quacious. A  talkative  person  is  sometimes  silent 
but  never  taciturn. 

"The  cause  of  Addison's  taciturnity  was  a  natural 
diffidence  in  the  company  of  strangers." 

Sneer,  Jeer,  Scoff. — "The  verb  to  sneer  implies 
to  cast  contempt  indirectly  or  by  covert  expression. 
To  jeer  is  stronger,  and  denotes  the  use  of  severe, 
sarcastic  reflections.  To  scoff  is  stronger  still,  im- 
plying the  use  of  insolent  mockery  and  derision." — 
Webster. 

"Knowing  this  first,  that  there  shall  come  in  the 
last  days  scoffers,  walking  after  their  own  lusts." 
2  Peter  3 :  3. 

Stimulant,  Stimulus. — The  former  word  is  gen- 
erally used  to  designate  anything  material  taken 
into  the  systen  in  order  to  stir  and  quicken  the 
nerves;  as  all  malt  and  spirituous  liquors,  tea,  cof- 
fee, morphine,  etc.  The  latter  often  expresses  an 
abstract  idea;  as,  The  hope  of  immortality  is  a 
powerful  stimulus  to  Christian  endeavor.  Light  is 
a  stimulus  (not  stimulant)  to  the  eye;  air-waves,  to 
the  ear.  Stimulus  is  akin  in  meaning  to  incentive. 
Stimulate  is  the  conjugate  verb  to  both  these  nouns. 

Talkative,  Loquacious,  Garrulous. — A  talkative 
person  is  by  nature  disposed  to  talk  much,  but  usually 
restrains  himself  somewhat.     A  loquacious  person 

19 


288  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

not  only  talks  much  but  has  also  a  very  ready  flow 
of  words  at  command.  Persons — especially  women 
— of  high  animal  spirits  are,  as  a  rule,  given  to  lo- 
quacity. Loquacious  persons  seldom  think  below  the 
surface  of  things.  Persons  who  indulge  in  prosy, 
tiresome,  long-drawn-out  talk  are  garrulous.  Illiter- 
ate old  men  are  particularly  prone  to  garrulity.  Gar- 
rulous persons  take  delight  in  imparting  petty  and 
valueless  information.  They  are  full  of  petty  ex- 
periences, in  the  detailing  of  which  they  occupy  the 
time  of  others.  Feebleness  of  mind  and  egotism 
breed  garrulity.  The  loquacious  wear  out  our  ears ; 
the  garrulous,  our  patience. 

Worth,  Value. — The  ivorth  of  anything  is  in- 
trinsic; the  value  is  accidental.  Its  value  is  deter- 
mined by  what  it  does  for  you,  or  by  the  price  it 
will  bring  in  the  market.  A  thing's  worth  is  its 
inherent  merit  or  excellence,  and  is  therefore  per- 
manent.   Value  is  subject  to  change. 

"The  picture,"  he  said,  "was  valued  at  one  hundred 
dollars,  but  I  think  it  is  worth  much  more." 

EXERCISE  I 

Use  the  following  words  in  sentences  which  illus- 
trate the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  words  in 
each  pair  or  each  set: 

Emigrant,  immigrant;  peaceable,  peaceful;  con- 
vince, persuade;  ought,  should;  lie,  untruth;  haste, 
hurry;  healthful,  healthy;  new,  novel;  exceedingly, 


USE  OF  WORDS  289 

excessively;  last,  latest;  fewer,  less;  luxuriant,  lux- 
urious; hanged,  hung;  evidence,  testimony;  reveal, 
divulge;  depot,  station. 

EXERCISE  II 

The  words  in  each  of  the  following  pairs  sound 
somewhat  alike,  but  are  not  synonymous.  Use  each 
ivord  correctly  in  a  sentence: 

Revenge,  avenge ;  visitor,  visitant ;  equable,  equita- 
ble; exceptional,  exceptionable;  incredible,  incredu- 
lous ;  ingenious,  ingenuous ;  delusion,  illusion ;  excite, 
incite;  egoism,  egotism;  apposite,  opposite;  council, 
counsel;  completion,  completeness;  adherence,  adhe- 
sion ;  negligence,  neglect ;  organism,  organization,  ac- 
cess, accession;  deceit,  deception;  complement,  com- 
pliment ;  conscience,  consciousness ;  novice,  novitiate ; 
site,  situation;  union,  unity;  long,  lengthy;  piti- 
able, pitiful;  deadly,  deathly;  human,  humane; 
practical,  practicable ;  venal,  venial ;  Greek,  Grecian ; 
artist,  artisan;  social,  sociable;  politic,  political; 
deprecate,  depreciate;  ceremonial,  ceremonious;  ad- 
vance, advancement. 

EXERCISE  III 

State  orally  what  the  difference  is  between — 

Love  and  like,  angry  and  mad,  guess  and  suppose, 

beside  and  besides,  replace,  and  displace,  rendering 

and  rendition,  happen  and  transpire,  stricken  and 

struck,  little  and  small,  custom  and  habit,  amateur 


290  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

and  novice,  expect  and  suppose,  balance  and  differ- 
ence, around  and  round,  center  and  middle,  learn  and 
teach,  stay  and  stop,  dominate  and  domineer,  drive 
and  ride,  funny  and  odd,  farther  and  further,  visi- 
tant, and  visitor,  mercenary  and  venal,  lie  and 
untruth,  stimulant  and  stimulus,  eternal  and  ever- 
lasting, falseness  and  falsity,  0  and  oh,  balance  and 
remainder. 

EXERCISE  IV 

Which  of  the  italicized  words  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  is  the  proper  word? 

.1.  He  is  well  informed  (posted)  on  such  matters. 

2.  He  said,  "I  am  bound  (determined)  to  try  it." 

3.  The  Governor  has  deputized  (deputed)  Colonel 
Fletcher  to  act  for  him. 

4.  The  traitor  was  hanged  (hung)  yesterday. 

5.  The  rumor  should  be  wholly  discounted  (dis- 
credited) . 

6.  He  won  her  confidence  by  base  deception  (de- 
ceit). 

7.  The  train  has  just  left  the  station   (depot). 

8.  He  has 'recently  got  over  (recovered  from)  a 
second  attack. 

9.  Emigration  (immigration)  is  one  cause  of  the 
rapid  growth  of  our  population. 

10.  We  have  already  proved  the  falseness  (falsity) 
of  that  hypothesis. 

11.  One    can    hardly    realize    the    enormousness 
(enormity)  of  the  national  wealth. 


USE  OF  WORDS  291 

12.  Clark  had  thirty  votes,  Hayne,  twenty,  and 
Vincent  fifteen;  hence  Clark  was  elected  by  a  safe 
plurality  (majority). 

13.  He  sold  me  a  receipt  (recipe)  for  a  cleansing 
fluid,  which  he  says  can  not  be  surpassed. 

14.  The  police  are  looking  for  the  guilty  persons 
(parties). 

15.  The  pupils  all  say  that  the  teacher  has  an 
irritating  (aggravating)  manner. 

16.  Mr.  Jones,  you  and  I  have  a  mutual  (common) 
friend  in  Joe  Mitchell. 

17.  He  would  as  leave  (lief)  be  a  private  as  an 
officer. 

18.  He  promised  to  come  at  once   (right  azvay). 

19.  Fruit  is  not  so  plenty  (plentiful)  as  it  was 
last  year. 

20.  It  is  funny  (strange)  that  one  so  robust  should 
die  so  young. 

21.  I  could  not  convince  (persuade)  him  that  he 
had  been  misinformed. 

22.  We  put  everything  in  the  shop  at  his  disposal 
(disposition). 

23.  I  did  not  hear  your  answer  (reply)  to  his  ac- 
cusation. 

24.  His  subsequent  (future)  life  was  irreproach- 
able. 

25.  In  the  meantime  important  events  were  taking 
place  (transpiring)  in  Holland. 

26.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  the  lawyer  elimi- 
nated (elicited)  the  desired  information. 


292  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

27.  His    awkwardness    in    handling    the    mallet 
proved  him  a  novice  (amateur). 

28.  He  was  exposed  to  continuous  (continual)  in- 
terruption. 

29.  I  would  have  gone  if  it  had  been  ever  (never) 
so  stormy. 

30.  His  life  was  one  of  luxuriant  (luxurious)  ease. 

31.  He  promised  to  return  inside  of  (ivithin)  ten 
days. 

32.  I  have  no  desire  to  detract  (deteriorate)  from 
his  merit. 

33.  He  does  not  realize  the  enormity  (enormous- 
ness)  of  his  crime. 

34.  Temperate  habits  are  an  important  preven- 
tative  (preventive)   of  sickness. 

35.  Catholic  forms  of  public  worship  are  more 
ceremonial   (ceremonious)   than  are  Protestant. 

36.  His   address    was    exceptionably    (exception- 
ally) good. 

37.  I  admire  your  candidness    (candor). 

38.  Inebriety  (inebriation)  is  a  ruinous  vice. 

39.  A  house  in  Walnut  Street  was   entered  by 
burglars   (buglarized)   last  night. 

40.  He  became  angry  (mad)  at  what  I  said. 

41.  The  boy  is  so  dumb  (stupid)  that  he  can  not 
grasp  the  simplest  facts  of  arithmetic. 

42.  We  were  wearied  by  his  long   (lengthy)   ex- 
planations. 

43.  She  looked  deadly  (deathly)  pale. 


USE  OF  WORDS  293 

44.  Were  the  instructions  given  orally  (verbally) 
or  in  writing? 

45.  It  was  very   (real)   kind  in  you  to  send  me 
flowers. 

46.  Will  you  loan    (lend)    your  carriage  for  an 
hour  this  afternoon? 

47.  He    tried    to    discover    (locate)    the    places 
whence  the  sounds  came. 

48.  I  hope  you  may  succeed  in  convicting   (con- 
vincing) him  of  his  error. 

49.  They  left  town  without  effecting   (affecting) 
their  purpose. 

50.  The  orator   enthused    (aroused  the   enthusi- 
asm of)  his  audience. 

51.  They  were  all  persons  of  extraordinary  im- 
portance  (consequence) . 

52.  My  former  employer  has  sent  (made)  the  re- 
mittance I  expected. 

53.  Every  application  made  for  procuring  a  par- 
don was  ineffectual   (unsuccessful). 

54.  What    method    of    procedure     (proceeding) 
would  you  adopt  in  that  case? 

55.  Do  you  expect  (anticipate)  a  good  crop  this 
year? 

56.  At  what  hotel  did  you  stop   (stay)   while  in 
Paris? 

57.  The  patient  is  somewhat    (some)   better. 

58.  We  shall  try  (make)  an  experiment. 

59.  Brown  is  a  valued  (valuable)   contributor  to 
the  Evening  Post. 


294  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

60.  It  was  a  nice  (good)  program. 

61.  He  plead  (pleaded)  guilty. 

62.  Professor  Brown  has  written  much  on  the 
art  of  rearing   (raising)   children. 

63.  I  drove  past  (by)  your  house  yesterday. 

64.  His  numerous   (many)   friends  congratulated 
him. 

65.  Boston  is  farther  (further)  from  Philadelphia 
than  is  New  York. 

6Q.  Mary  Jones  is  a  chronic  (confirmed)  invalid. 

67.  The  Irish  continuously  (continually)  use  shall 
for  will. 

68.  The  proprietor  of  the  hotel  is  an  uncommonly 
zealous  person  (individual). 

69.  He  was  conscious  (aware)  of  the  hatred  that 
rankled  in  his  heart. 

70.  The  immigrants  will  locate  (settle)  in  Oregon. 

71.  They  jeopardized   (jeoparded)   their  lives  in 
defense  of  their  liberties. 

72.  The  employees  will  find  (furnish)  the  tools. 

73.  It  costs  ten  cents  to  have  your  shoes  black- 
ened (blacked)  in  this  town. 

74.  From  whence  (whence)  came  the  apparition? 

75.  Tom's  mother  is  a  widow    (widow  wo?nau) . 

The  following  words,  in  the  sense  indicated,  are 
marked  colloquial  in  the  Standard  Dictionary : 

Bosh    (empty  talk). 
Boss,  to  (to  act  the  boss). 
Breeches  (trousers). 
Chuck,  to  (to  pitch). 


USE  OF  WORDS  295 

Clip   (a  blow  with  the  hand). 

Cute  (shrewd,  acute). 

Disgruntle,  to  (to  vex  by  disappointment) . 

Doctor,  to  (to  repair). 

Engineer,  to  (to  work  a  scheme  on). 

Fib,  to   (to  speak  falsely). 

Fishy  (improbable). 

Fizzle,  to  (to  fail). 

Fry  (a  state  of  excitement) . 

Gallowses  (suspenders  for  the  trousers). 

Happen  in,  to  (to  make  a  chance  call). 

Heft  (weight). 

Hunk  (a  large  piece). 

Lot  (a  great  deal). 

Miff,  to  (to  offend  slightly) . 

Muffish  (dull-witted;  awkward). 

Natty  (neatly  fine;  spruce). 

Peeper  (the  eye) . 

Rattle,  to   (to  disconcert). 

Reckon,  to  [prov.]    (to  think). 

Rugged  (robust;  strong). 

Scoot,  to  (to  scurry  off). 

Shaver  (a  lad). 

Ship,  to  (to  get  rid  of) . 

Sight  (a  great  number) . 

Snake,  to  (to  drag  or  pull). 

Spin,  to  (to  move  swiftly) . 

Thick  (very  intimate). 

Vim   (force  or  vigor). 

Wire,  to   (to  telegraph). 

Yank  (to  jerk). 


296  ESSENTIALS  OF  ENGLISH 

The  following  words,  in  the  sense  indicated,  are 
marked  slang  in  the  Standard  Dictionary: 

Boodle    (bribe  money). 

Enthuse,  to   (to  make  enthusiastic). 

Kid  (a  young  child). 

Mossback  (a  conservative  partisan). 

Plug  (a  silk  hat). 

Pull   (an  advantage). 

Rope  in,  to   (to  decoy). 

Scalawag   (a  scapegrace). 

Shag-rag   (the  ragged  part  of  the  community). 

Sorehead  (a  person  disaffected  by  disappoint- 
ment) . 

Splurge  (an  obtrusive  display). 

Sport  (a  sportsman). 

Swell  (a  showy  person). 

The  following  words,  though  marked  colloquial , 
in  the  sense  indicated,  in  Webster's  International 
Dictionary,  may  now  be  regarded  as  pure  English 
words,  being  so  recognized  by  the  Standard  Dic- 
tionary : 

Gush  (effusive  speech). 

Coach,  to  (to  train  by  personal  instruction). 

Headachy  (subject  to  headache). 

Kelter    (proper  condition). 

Know-all  (a  wiseacre). 

Nag,  to  (to  annoy,  or  tease,  in  a  petty  way) . 

offish  (shy). 

Run  (a  trip). 

Scamp,  to  (to  do  work  imperfectly). 


USE  OF  WORDS  297 


Scare  (a  fright). 
Seedy  (shabby  looking). 
Shaky  (easily  shaken). 
Tantrum  (a  fit  of  ill  humor) . 
Tip  (a  fee). 


INDEX 


References  are  to  pages;  f  signifies  "and  the  following  page;  " 
ft',  "and  the  following  pages."  Words  treated  as  words  are  in 
italics;  other  topics  are  in  Roman. 

Abbreviate    253 

Above  240 

Abridge    253 

Accede    2.~.4 

Accept    247 

Acceptance    254 

Acceptation   2.~i4 

Accept  of    247 

Access    253 

Accession  253 

Accuracy  in  the  use  of  words 240  ft' 

Acquiesce    2541 

Acquire    254 

Act    

Action    248 

Active    253  f 

Administer 247 

Admit     247 

Advent   247 

Affect  249 

Aggregate   24  7 

Agile    258* 

Agree     24  7 

Agricull wrist   248 

Alert    

All    248 

Allegory,  defined  and  illustrated,  187 ft';   exercises  in    189 

All   of    

(298) 


INDEX  299 

Allow    249 

Allude    248 

Almost   81 

Alone    248 

Alternative    249 

Amateur    250 

Ambiguous    276 

Ancestors  278 

Ancient    250 

Answer 252 

Anticipate     250f 

Antiquated 250 

Antique    250 

Antithesis,  defined  and  illustrated   215ft' 

Anxious     251 

Anyhow     251 

Apostrophe,  figure  of,  defined  and  illustrated    186f 

Apparent     252 

Appear    286 

Applied  grammar    „ 7ff 

Apt     251f 

Arrange    278 

Arrival     247 

Articles,  34ff ;  exercises  in 36ff 

As  if    252 

Assent    254 

Assert 261 

As  though  252 

At  any  rate 251 

At  last 253 

At  length \ 253 

Atone  for   262 

Attitude  284 

Audience    , 255 

Authoress 255f 

Avaricious   263 


300  INDEX 

Avocation    256 

Avoid    .- 256f 

Awful 257 

Bad    83,    257 

Badly   ! 257 

Balanced  sentence,  defined  and  illustrated,  174f;   exercise    .  .  175f 

Barbaric    259 

Barbarous    259 

Begin    265 

Belong 258 

Bestow     259 

Better 258 

Black    258 

Blacken    258 

Bound    259 

Bough    258 

Brackets    133 

Branch 258 

Bravery    258 

Brevity,  209 ;  exercise  in   212 

Bring     260 

Building  a  vocabulary,  234ff ;  exercises  in 237,  245 

But  that   82f 

But  wliat  82f 

Calculate    860 

Can   44 

Capable    261 

Capital  letters,  rules  governing  use  of,  91ff ;  exercise  in    93 

Case   forms   of   pronouns,    19f;    exercise   in    20ff 

Ceremonial    264f 

Ceremon  iota    264f 

Character 261 

Chasteness    265 

Chastity     265 

Claim    261 

Clearness  of  sentence,  192ff;  exercises  in,  193,  194,  195,  199,  201 


INDEX  301 

Clever 262 

Climax,  defined  and  illustrated 213ff 

Colon,  the;  rules  governing  use  of,  124ff ;  exercise  in 127 

Comma,  the ;  rules  governing  use  of 99ff 

exercises  in  .  . 101,  104,  106,  107,  108,  109,  111,  114,  116ff 

Commence    265 

Comparison,  68 ;  exercise  in 69ff 

Compensation    285 

Complete    275 

Composition,  principles  of    163ff 

Condign   262 

Condone    262 

Confer    259 

Congregate  together   262 

Conjunctions,  correlative,  79;  exercise  in   80 

Conquer    266f 

Consider     262f 

Contemptible     263 

Contemptuous    263 

Continual     264 

Continuous     264 

Conversationist     248 

Contrary    283f 

Courage   258 

Course    249 

Covetous    263 

Credible   263f 

Creditable    263f 

Crime    265f 

Custom  265 

Dangerous     267 

Dash,  the;  rules  governing  use  of  130ff 

Deadly   269 

Deathly    269 

Deceit     270 

Deception     270 


302  INDEX 

Decided    269f 

Decisive    269f 

Defective  271 

Defend    268 

Deity    270 

Demean    267 

Desirous   .- 251 

Deteriorate    274 

Determined    259 

Detract  from    274 

Difficulty    271f 

Dirt    274 

Disability     267f 

Disbelief    270 

Discern     272 

Discretion    268f 

Discrimina  te     268 

Disgrace    267 

Distinguish    268 

Divinity     270 

Donate   272f 

Double    negatives    82 

Due     273 

Duty     282f 

Earth    274 

Effect     249 

Elegant    873 

Emigra nt    275 

K  nor  mi!  y    275 

Enormomness   275 

Enough     274f 

Entire   83,  275 

Epigram,  the;   illustrated,  218;  exercise  in   218f 

Equanimity   275 

Equivocal     276 

Every    83 


INDEX  303 

Excellent    273 

Exclamation,  figure  of 220f 

Exclamation  point,  rules  governing  use  of, 98f 

Expect    250f 

Exuberant    276 

Faulty    271 

Faulty  metaphors,   189;   exercise  in  correcting    ,.190 

Feign    276f 

Female   278f 

Fetch      260 

Figures  of  speech,  177ft';  defined   178 

Fix    278 

Force,  explained   and    Illustrated,   203;    devices   for  securing, 

204ft;  exercises  in  205,  207f,  225  f 

Forefathers    278 

Foregoing    246 

Foretell    277 

Fortitude     258 

Freedom 281 

Gain.    280 

Garrulous     287f 

(Jender,  defined,  17 ;  exercise  in 18f 

Genius    279f 

Gentleman    .  .  , 279 

Give    272 

Good-natured    262 

Habit    265 

Had  ought    83 

Hyperbole    217f 

Idle 280 

Immigrant    275 

Inability    267f 

Indolent  280 

Infinitives,  present  and  perfect,  47;  exercises  in 48 

Inquiring   281 

Inquisitive   281 

20 


304  INDEX 

Interrogation,  figure  of   219f 

Interrogation  point,  rules  governing  use  of    97f 

Intend    260f 

Introduce   285 

Intrude    282 

Inverted  order,  222ff ;  exercise  in 224f 

Invitations  and  replies   155ff 

Irony,  defined  and  illustrated    222 

Irritate    247 

Italics,  rules  governing  use  of 94f 

Jeer    287 

Lady 279 

Letter- writing,  141ff ;  exercises  in  1601' 

Letters,   kinds   of    141  f 

Letters,  parts  of   1 12  f 

Liable    251f 

Liberty    281 

Lie  or  lay,  exercise  in  the  use  of    40 

Like    75 

Likely 251f 

Lively    253 

Long  sentences  1641 

Lookers-on 255 

Loose  sentences    166 

Loquacious    *  287f 

Luxuriant    276 

Marine   8611 

Maritime    2811 

Maternal    

May    H 

Metaphor,  the,  defined  and   illustrated   181f;    exercise  in    ..182f 

Faulty  metaphors 189 

Metonymy,  defined  and  illustrated,  208f ;  exercise  in 209 

More  than   258 

Mortal    269 

Most   81 


INDEX  305 

Motherly    282 

Nautical 281f 

Naval   281f 

Novice    250 

Number  forms  of  nouns,  12ff ;  exercise  in 16f 

Obligation   282f 

Observance    283 

Observation 283 

Obsolete 250 

Obstacle 271f 

Obtain 254 

Obtrude 282 

Obvious    252 

Of  of 74 

Only    248 

Opposite 283f 

Overcome  266f 

Owing 273 

Paragraphing,  explained  and  illustrated,  226ff;   exercises  in  233 

Parenthesis,  marks  of;   rules  governing  use  of   132f 

Parsimonious    263 

Perceive   272 

Period,  the,  rules  governing  use  of   95f 

Periodic    sentence,    the,    defined    and    illustrated,    1 6 7 ft* ; 

exercise  in  171  ff 

Permit    249 

Perpetual    264 

Personification,  defined  and  illustrated,  183f;  exercise  in   ...,184f 

Poetess     255f 

Possessive  case  of  nouns,  8ff ;  exercise  in   lOff 

Possessive  form  before  verbal  nouns,  29 ;  exercise  in 30 

Posture 284 

Predict 277 

Prepositions,  correct  use  of,  71  ;  exercise  in    73ff 

Present    285 

Pretend    276f 


306  INDEX 

Prevent    256 

Pride    284f 

Prolixity    211f 

Pronouns  and  their  antecedents,  31;  exercises  in 31ff 

Protect 268 

Prudence    268f 

Punctuation,  90ff;  exercises  in 134ft' 

Quite    S3 

Quotation,  marks  of;  rules  governing  use  of 128f 

Beal    82 

Eeally 82 

Recollect 285 

Recompense     285 

Refer    248 

Relative  pronouns,  choice  in  use  of,  26f ;  exercises  in 27ff 

Remember   285 

Remuneration    285f 

Reply    252 

Reputation 261 

Reticent   286f 

Rise    or    raise    43 

Safe    286 

Scoff 287 

Secure    286 

Seem    286 

Semicolon,  the,  rules  governing  use  of,    119ff 

exercises  in    119,    1LM,    123 

Sentence,  the,  defined  and  illustrated, 166ff 

Severe   83,  257,  262 

Shall  and  will,  58ff;  exercises  in    62ff 

Should  and  ivould,  58ff ;  exercises  in    62ff 

Silent    286f 

Simile,  defined  and  illustrated   L78fl 

Sin    865 

Sit  or  set 12 

Sneer    


INDEX  307 

Soil  -74 

Solecism,  defined    ~ 

Solecisms,   practice   in   detecting    83  ff 

Some 81 

Something   81 

Somewhat    81 

Specific  words,  206;  exercise  in 207f 

Stimulant     28*3 

Stim  ulus     28*3 

Strike  ; 247 

Style,  defined    L9] 

Subdue  266f 

Subject  and  predicate,  concord  of,  54ff;   exercises  in    fiUrV 

Subjunctive  mode,  49fT;  exercise  in   51ff 

Sufficient    274f 

Susceptible    261 

Synecdoche,    defined    209 

S y  ti  t  a  x,  defined    7 

Taciturn 286f 

Talent    279f 

Talkative  287f 

Than  75 

That    33 

These    33 

Think   262f 

This    33 

Those    ;;;,• 

Titles,  use  of   '. 1 50 

Unbelief 270 

Unchangeable  facts,  how  expressed    45fl 

Unity  in  sentences 201f 

Value    288 

Vanity    , 284f 

Vanquish   266f 

Verbs,  correct  forms  of,  38ff ;  exercise  in 40ff 

Verbs,  with  adjective  complements 76ff 


308  INDEX 

Very   257 

Very  much 83 

Vice    265f 

Vocation    256 

W as  graduated 278 

Were  or  was  53 

Will  and  shall,  58ff ;  exercises  in G2ff 

Win    280 

Woman 278 

Words,  accuracy  in  the  use  of,  246;  exercises  in  the  use  of  .  .288ft' 

Worth    288 

Would  and  should,  58ff :  exercises  in  62ft 


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